Compositions and methods for antimicrobial metal nanoparticles

ABSTRACT

Embodiments of the invention are directed to a composition having antimicrobial activity comprising particles comprising at least one inorganic copper salt; and at least one functionalizing agent in contact with the particles, the functionalizing agent stabilizing the particle in a carrier such that an antimicrobially effective amount of ions are released into the environment of a microbe. The average size of the particles ranges from about 1000 nm to about 4 nm. Preferred copper salts include copper iodide, copper bromide and copper chloride. Preferred functionalizing agents include amino acids, thiols, hydrophilic polymers emulsions of hydrophobic polymers and surfactants.

CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application claims priority to U.S. Provisional Patent ApplicationSer. No. 61/519,523, filed May 24, 2011, and U.S. Provisional PatentApplication Ser. No. 61/582,322 filed Dec. 31, 2011, both of which areincorporated herein by reference in their entirety.

FIELD OF THE INVENTION

The invention relates to antimicrobial compositions comprising inorganiccopper salt nanoparticles, their preparation, combinations ofcopper-based nanoparticles with metal and other metal saltnanoparticles, application of the compositions to surfaces and methodsof preparation and use.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

The antimicrobial effect of various metals and their salts has beenknown for centuries. Hippocrates wrote that silver had beneficialhealing and antidisease properties, and the Phoenicians stored water,wine, and vinegar in silver bottles to prevent spoiling. In the early20th century, silver coins were put in milk bottles to prolong themilk's freshness. Its germicidal effects increased its value in utensilsand as jewelry. The exact process of silver's germicidal effect is stillnot entirely understood, although theories exist. One of these is the“oligodynamic effect,” which qualitatively explains the effect on somemicroorganisms, but cannot explain antiviral effects. Silver is widelyused in topical gels and impregnated into bandages because of itswide-spectrum antimicrobial activity.

The oligodynamic effect is demonstrated by other metals, specificallygold, silver, copper, zinc, and bismuth. Copper is one such metal.Copper has long been used as a biostatic surface to line the bottoms ofships to protect against barnacles and mussels. It was originally usedin pure form, but has since been superseded by brass and other alloysdue to their lower cost and higher durability. Bacteria will not grow ona copper surface because it is biostatic. Copper alloys have becomeimportant netting materials in the aquaculture industry for the factthat they are antimicrobial and prevent biofouling and have strongstructural and corrosion-resistant properties in marine environments.Organic compounds of copper are useful for preventing fouling of ships'hulls. Copper alloy touch surfaces have recently been investigated asantimicrobial surfaces in hospitals for decreasing transmission ofnosocomial infections.

The antimicrobial properties of silver stem from the chemical propertiesof its ionized form, Ag⁺, and several mechanisms have been proposed toexplain this effect. For example, silver ions form strong molecularbonds with other substances used by bacteria to respire, such as enzymescontaining sulfur, nitrogen, and oxygen. When the Ag⁺ ion forms acomplex with these biomolecules, they are rendered inactive, deprivingthem of necessary activity and eventually leading to the bacteria'sdeath. Silver ions can also complex with bacterial DNA, impairing theability of the microorganisms to reproduce. The mechanism for copperions, on the other hand, is not so well understood. Numerous scientificinvestigations have focused on the role of the metal form of copper, andhave concluded that multiple mechanisms may be possible for copper'santimicrobial effect, including increased production of reactiveoxidation species such as singlet oxygen and hydroxide radicals,covalent binding of copper metal to reactive sites in enzymes andco-factors, interference with lipid bilayer transport proteins, andinteraction of copper ions with moieties of microorganisms analogous towhat have been proposed for silver ions.

It is clear that silver and its various compounds and salts have beenthe overwhelming favorite in terms of its use as an antimicrobial agent.However, silver in the form of the silver halides silver iodide, silverbromide and silver chloride is well-known to be light-sensitive and wasused for many years in photography. Copper, aside from its use inpreserving marine objects such as ship hulls, has not generally beenused in antimicrobial compounds.

Provision of the oligodynamic metal species in the form of fineparticles, including the form of nanoparticles, avoids problems such assettling of the particles in solutions—but introduces a complication intrying to estimate the solubility for a given small particle size or theconcentration of free ions produced by contact of specific aqueoussolutions with a given set of nanometal particles, in addition to theubiquitous issue of agglomeration. Use of oligodynamic metal species inthe form of nanoparticles introduces a further observation—viz., basedon several reports in the literature, such particles may under some(generally unspecified) conditions be taken up by the outer membranes ofpathogens and transported into the bodies of the pathogens. In manycases, it is expected that this observation would be advantageous forthe antimicrobial effectiveness of the metal species.

It is presently unknown under what precise conditions does suchpenetration by specific nanoparticles of oligodynamic materials takeplace; and it is certainly unknown what conditions (including particlesize and chemistry) promote or mitigate against such penetration. Whatis needed are better broad-spectrum antimicrobial compositions that maybetter target oligodynamic metal compounds to microbes and otherpathogens.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

The inventors associated with this patent have made the surprisingdiscovery that particles of certain copper salts have much greaterefficacy against a broad range of microbes, viruses, molds and fungithan similar silver-based antimicrobial particles. In particular, it hasbeen discovered that copper salts including the copper halide copperiodide (“CuI”), when formulated in accordance with the teachings herein,is surprisingly effective as a broad-spectrum, fast-acting antimicrobialagent.

A first embodiment of the invention is directed to a composition havingantimicrobial activity comprising particles comprising at least oneinorganic copper salt; and at least one functionalizing agent in contactwith the particles, the functionalizing agent stabilizing the particlesin a carrier such that an antimicrobially effective amount of ions arereleased into the environment of a microbe. In one embodiment thecarrier is a liquid in which the functionalizing agent is soluble. Inanother embodiment the carrier is a liquid in which the functionalizingagent is insoluble but stabilized in the carrier. The functionalizingagent acts to complex the particles thereby stabilizing them in theliquid. In some embodiments the liquid carrier is water-based, and inothers it is oil-based. In the liquid carrier embodiment the particlesare suspended by the liquid carrier in solution. In other embodimentsthe carrier is a solid such as a melt-blend plastic. In anotherembodiment the inorganic copper salt comprises a copper halide salt. Inother embodiments the halide is selected from the group consisting ofiodide, bromide and chloride, and a particularly preferred embodiment iscopper iodide (CuI). Preferably the average size of such particlesranges from about 1000 nm to as small as 4 nm. In further embodimentsthe particles have average sizes of less than about 300 nm, 100 nm, 30nm or even less than about 10 nm. In yet further embodiments the copperhalide has a solubility of less than 100 mg/liter in water, or even lessthan 15 mg/liter in water.

Another embodiment is directed to a composition having antimicrobialactivity comprising particles comprising at least one inorganic coppersalt selected from the group consisting of CuI, CuBr and CuCl and havingan average size of about 1000 nm or less; at least one functionalizingagent in contact with said particles, said functionalizing agent beingpresent at a weight ratio of from about 100:1 to about 0.5:1.

Embodiments of the invention include functionalizing agents that caninclude an amino acid, a thiol, a polymer especially a hydrophilicpolymer, emulsions of hydrophobic polymers, surfactants, or aligand-specific binding agent. Preferred embodiments of amino acidagents include aspartic acid, leucine and lysine; preferred embodimentsof thiol agents include aminothiol, thioglycerol, thioglycine,thiolactic acid, thiomalic acid, thiooctic acid and thiosilane.Preferred embodiments of hydrophilic polymers includepolyvinylpyrollidone, polyethyleneglycol and copolymers and blendscomprising at least one of the monomers which form the said polymers.Other preferred polymers include polyurethanes, acrylic polymers,epoxies, silicones and fluorosilicones, particularly when used asemulsions and solutions during surface modification. Preferredembodiments of the invention utilize copper halides such as CuI, CuBrand CuCl. Yet further embodiments of the invention include compositionsadditionally comprising at least one of a silver particle or a silverhalide particle. The silver or silver halide particle may befunctionalized with a member selected from the group consisting of anamino acid, a thiol, a hydrophilic polymer or a ligand-specific agent.Further embodiments of the silver halide include a halide chosen fromiodide, bromide and chloride.

Another embodiment of the invention described herein is a compositionhaving antimicrobial activity made according to the process comprisingthe steps of obtaining CuI powder; dissolving the CuI powder in a polarnonaqueous solvent; adding an amount of functionalizing agent sufficientto stabilize said CuI in the polar, nonaqueous solvent; removing thesolvent sufficient to dry said stabilized CuI particles whereby afunctionalizing agent-complexed CuI particle powder is formed;dispersing the functionalizing agent-complexed CuI particle powder in anaqueous solution having a pH of from about 1 to about 6 to form CuIparticles stabilized in water; and optionally drying the stabilized CuIparticles sufficient to remove the water. Another optional step is toneutralize the pH of the dispersion prior to the optional drying step.

In a further embodiment of the invention, metal compound particles mayalso be formed by grinding, particularly wet grinding. Wet grinding iscarried out in liquid (aqueous or non aqueous), where the media furthercomprises any surface modifying agents.

A further embodiment of the invention is directed to a method ofinhibiting the growth of microbes on the surface of an article ofmanufacture comprising coating the antimicrobial composition comprisingCuI upon the surface in an amount effective to inhibit growth of amicrobe.

A further embodiment of the invention is a method of inhibiting growthof a microbe comprising the steps of contacting the environs of amicrobe with an effective amount of a composition comprising a particlecomprising at least one inorganic copper salt having an average size ofless than about 100 nm; and at least one functionalizing agent incontact with the particle, the functionalizing agent stabilizing theparticle in solution such that an antimicrobially effective amount ofions are released into the environment of a microbe.

A further embodiment of the invention is directed to a compositionhaving antimicrobial activity comprising a mixed-metal halide particlecomprising at least one copper halide and at least a second metalhalide; and at least one functionalizing agent in contact with themixed-metal halide particle, the functionalizing agent stabilizing theparticle in suspension such that an antimicrobially effective amount ofions are released into the environment of a microbe.

A further embodiment of the invention is directed to a compositionhaving antimicrobial activity comprising a mixture of particlescomprising particles of an inorganic copper salt and particles of atleast a second inorganic metal compound; and at least onefunctionalizing agent in contact with said mixture of particles, saidfunctionalizing agent stabilizing said mixture of particles in a carriersuch that an antimicrobially effective amount of ions are released intothe environment of the microbe. Preferably the size of such particles isless than about 300 nm.

A further embodiment of the invention is directed to a compositionhaving antimicrobial activity made according to the process comprisingthe steps of forming stabilized copper iodide particles; dispersing thestabilized copper iodide particles in a suspending medium; adding aquantity of the dispersed copper iodide particles to a manufacturingprecursor; and forming an article of manufacture at least partially fromthe manufacturing precursor whereby copper iodide particles aredispersed throughout said article. Preferably the size of such particlesis less than 300 nm. In some cases, the article may be a coating whichis applied to a separate article of manufacture to provide antimicrobialbenefits.

A further embodiment of the invention is directed to a compositionhaving antimicrobial activity comprising at least two antimicrobiallyactive ingredients, wherein the first of said ingredients comprises afunctionalized copper halide nanoparticle having an average size of lessthan 300 nm. The composition may also comprise at least one or moredifferent metal or inorganic metal compound nanoparticles havingantimicrobial activity. Further, the metal and inorganic metal compoundsof the composition may further comprise metals selected from the groupconsisting of selenium, bismuth, silver, zinc, copper, gold andcompounds thereof.

A further embodiment of the invention is directed to a compositionhaving antimicrobial activity comprising a metal halide selected fromthe group consisting of copper halide and silver halide; and a porouscarrier particle in which the metal halide is infused, the carrierparticle supporting the metal halide such that an antimicrobiallyeffective amount of ions are released into the environment of themicrobe.

In another embodiment of the invention, the porous carrier particlescontaining copper halide or copper halide and silver halide may beincorporated in matrix materials used as coatings or solid bodies havingdesirable antimicrobial activity.

In a further embodiment of the invention, the present antimicrobialcompositions, whether functionalized particles comprising copper halidenanoparticles or porous carrier particles containing copper halide orcopper halide and silver halide nanoparticles, may be combined withpolymer-containing coating solutions which may be applied by end usersto obtain antimicrobial activity in the coated objects.

A further embodiment of the invention is directed to a compositionhaving antimicrobial activity comprising a copper halide selected fromthe group consisting of copper iodide, copper bromide and copperchloride; and a porous carrier particle in which said copper halide isinfused, said carrier particle supporting said copper halide such thatan antimicrobially effective amount of ions are released into theenvironment of said microbe.

Yet a further embodiment of the invention is directed to anantimicrobial composition comprising one or more antibacterial materialsand/or analgesics and further comprising particles of at least one metalhalide, said particles having a preferred average size of less thanabout 1000 nm. At least one inorganic metal halide is selected from thegroup consisting of copper halide and silver halide, and the halides areselected from the group consisting of iodide, chloride and bromide. Apreferred metal halide is copper iodide.

Other embodiments are directed to a composition having antimicrobialactivity comprising a metal halide selected from the group consisting ofcopper halide and silver halide; and porous carrier particles in whichsaid metal halide is infused, said carrier particles supporting saidmetal halide such that an antimicrobially effective amount of ions arereleased into the environment of said microbe. The composition of claim1 incorporated into a product of manufacture so as to impartantimicrobial properties to said product by releasing antimicrobiallyeffective amounts of ions into the environment of a microbe. Thecomposition of claim 1 wherein said porous carrier particles areselected from the group consisting of silica particles, porous polymericresins, and ceramic particles. The composition of claim 1 wherein saidcopper halide has a solubility of less than about 100 mg/liter in water.The composition of claim 1 wherein said copper halide has a solubilityof less than about 15 mg/liter in water. The composition of claim 1wherein said copper halide is CuI. The composition of claim 1additionally comprising a silver metal. The composition of claim 1wherein said silver halides are selected from the group consisting ofAgI, AgBr, and AgCl. A composition having antimicrobial activitycomprising: a copper halide; and porous carrier particles in which saidcopper halide is infused, said carrier particles supporting said copperhalide such that an antimicrobially effective amount of ions arereleased into the environment of said microbe. A composition havingantimicrobial activity comprising a plurality of metal halidescomprising copper halide and silver halide; and porous carrier particlesin which said metal halides are infused, said carrier particlessupporting said metal halides such that an antimicrobially effectiveamount of ions are released into the environment of said microbe. Thecomposition of claim 15 incorporated into a product of manufacture so asto impart antimicrobial properties to said product by releasingantimicrobially effective amounts of ions into the environment of amicrobe. The composition of claim 15 wherein said porous carrierparticles are selected from the group consisting of silica particles,porous polymeric resins, and ceramic particles. The composition of claim15 wherein said copper halide has a solubility of less than about 100mg/liter in water. The composition of claim 15 wherein said copperhalide has a solubility of less than about 15 mg/liter in water. Thecomposition of claim 15 wherein said silver halides are selected fromthe group consisting of AgI, AgBr, and AgCl. The composition of claim 15wherein said copper halide is copper iodide. The composition of claim 15wherein the size of the porous particles is below 100 μm in size. Thecomposition of claim 15 wherein the size of the porous particles rangesfrom about 0.5 to about 20 μm. The composition of claim 15 wherein thepore size of the porous particles ranges from about 2 to about 20 nm.The composition of claim 15 wherein the pore size of the porousparticles ranges from about 4 to about 15 nm. The composition of claim15 wherein the surface area of the porous particles is greater thanabout 20 m²/g. The composition of claim 15 wherein the surface area ofthe porous particle is greater than about 100 m²/g.

Other embodiments are directed to a composition having antimicrobialactivity comprising: a mixture of particles comprising particles of aninorganic copper salt and particles of at least a second inorganic metalcompound; and at least one functionalizing agent in contact with saidmixture of particles, said functionalizing agent stabilizing saidmixture of particles in a carrier such that an antimicrobially effectiveamount of ions are released into the environment of said microbe. Thecomposition of claim 1 wherein said carrier is a liquid. The compositionof claim 2 wherein said functionalizing agent is soluble in said liquidcarrier. The composition of claim 1 wherein said particles are complexedby said functionalizing agent. The composition of claim 2 wherein saidliquid carrier is water-based. The composition of claim 2 wherein saidliquid carrier is oil-based. The composition of claim 2 wherein saidparticles are suspended by said liquid carrier in solution. Thecomposition of claim 1 wherein said carrier is a solid. The compositionof claim 8 wherein said solid carrier comprises a melt-blend plastic.The composition of claim 1 wherein said inorganic copper salt comprisesa copper halide salt. The composition of claim 1 wherein said secondmetal is selected from the group consisting of Silver, Gold, Copper,Zinc and Bismuth or alloys thereof. The composition of claim 1 whereinsaid second inorganic metal compound is a metal halide salt wherein thehalide is selected from the group consisting of Iodide, Bromide andChloride. The composition of claim 1 wherein said mixture of particleshas an average size range of from about 1000 nm to about 4 nm. Thecomposition of claim 1 wherein said mixture of particles has asolubility of less than about 100 ppm in water. The composition of claim1 wherein said mixture of particles has a solubility of less than about15 ppm in water. The composition of claim 1 wherein said functionalizingagent is selected from the group consisting of an amino acid, a thiol, ahydrophilic polymer, a hydrophobic polymer, a amphiphilic polymer,surfactants and a target-specific ligand. The composition of claim 16wherein said hydrophobic polymer is selected from the group consistingof polyurethanes, acrylic polymers, epoxies, silicones andfluorosilicones. The composition of claim 16 wherein said hydrophilicpolymer is selected from the group consisting of polyvinylpyrrolidone,polyethyleneglycol and copolymers and blends comprising at least one ofthe monomers which form the polymers. The composition of claim 1 whereinsaid functionalizing agent complexes said mixture of particles. Thecomposition of claim 1 wherein said second inorganic metal compoundcomprises silver. The composition of claim 19 wherein saidfunctionalized mixture of particles releases copper and silver cationsinto the environment of a microbe. The composition of claim 19 whereinsaid functionalized mixture of particles releases copper and silvercations in an amount sufficient to inhibit the growth of or kill saidmicrobes. The composition of claim 1 wherein said inorganic copper saltsand said second inorganic metal compound particles are selected from thegroup consisting of CuI, CuBr, CuCl, AgI, AgBr and AgCl. A compositionhaving antimicrobial activity comprising: a mixture of particlescomprising particles of a copper halide and particles of a silverhalide; and at least one functionalizing agent in contact with saidmixture of particles, said particles stabilizing said mixture ofparticles in a carrier such that an antimicrobially effective amount ofions are released into the environment of said microbe.

Other embodiments of the invention are directed to a composition havingantimicrobial activity made according to the process comprising thesteps of: obtaining CuI powder; dissolving said CuI powder in a polarnonaqueous solvent; adding an amount of functionalizing agent sufficientto stabilize said CuI in the polar, nonaqueous solvent; removing thesolvent sufficient to dry said stabilized CuI particles whereby afunctionalizing agent-complexed CuI particle powder is formed;dispersing the functionalizing agent-complexed CuI particle powder in anaqueous solution having a pH of from about 0.5 to about 6 to form CuIparticles stabilized in water; and optionally drying said stabilized CuIparticles sufficient to remove the water. The composition of claim 1wherein said solvent is a polar aprotic solvent. The composition ofclaim 1 wherein said solvent is selected from the group consisting ofacetonitrile and dimethylformamide. The composition of claim 1 whereinsaid functionalizing agent is selected from the group consisting ofamino acids, thiols, hydrophilic polymers, amphiphilic polymers andsurfactants. The composition of claim 4 wherein said hydrophilic polymeris selected from the group consisting of polyvinylpyrrolidone,polyethyleneglycol and copolymers and blends comprising at least one ofthe monomers which form the said polymers. The composition of claim 1wherein said functionalizing agent complexes said copper iodideparticles. The composition of claim 1 wherein said functionalized copperiodide particles release copper cations in an aqueous environment. Thecomposition of claim 1 wherein said functionalized copper iodideparticles release copper cations in an amount sufficient to inhibit thegrowth of microbes. The composition of claim 1 wherein saidfunctionalized copper iodide particles release copper cations in anamount sufficient to kill said microbes. The composition of claim 1wherein said functionalized copper iodide particles release iodide ionsinto the external environment of said microbes. The composition of claim1 wherein said ratio of polymer to particle is from about 0.5:1 to about100:1 by weight. The composition of claim 1 wherein the functionalizedparticle has an average size range of from about 1000 nm to about 4 nm.The composition of claim 1 additionally comprising the step ofneutralizing said aqueous dispersion prior to the optional drying step.A composition having antimicrobial activity made according to theprocess comprising the steps of: obtaining CuI powder; dissolving saidCuI powder in a polar nonaqueous solvent; adding an amount of polymercomprising PEG and/or PVP and their blends and copolymers sufficient tostabilize said CuI in the polar, nonaqueous solvent; removing thesolvent sufficiently to dry said stabilized CuI particles whereby apolymer-complexed CuI particle powder is formed; dispersing thepolymer-complexed CuI particle powder in an aqueous solution having a pHof from about 0.5 to about 6 to from CuI particles stabilized in waterwhereby a polymer-complexed CuI particle; and optionally drying saidstabilized CuI particles sufficient to remove the water. Anotherembodiment is directed to a composition having antimicrobial activitymade according to the process comprising the steps of: obtaining acopper compound or a silver compound which is selected from the groupconsisting of a copper halide, silver halide, copper oxide, silver oxideand copper thiocyanate; grinding said compound in the presence of afunctionalizing agent in a fluidic medium so as to surface functionalizethe smaller particles being formed; obtaining said compound particles atleast in a range of about 1,000 to 4 nm; and optionally removing thefluid sufficient to dry said functionalized material particles. Acomposition as in claim 16, wherein the halide is CuI, CuBr, CuCl, AgBr,AgI and AgCl and the oxide is Cu₂O and Ag₂O. A composition as in claim16 wherein said functionalizing agent is selected from the groupconsisting of amino acids, thiols, hydrophilic polymers, hydrophobicpolymers, amphiphilic polymers, monomers, surfactants and emulsions ofhydrophobic polymers. A composition as in claim 16, wherein the fluidicmedium is aqueous. A composition as in claim 16, wherein the fluidicmedium is nonaqueous. A composition as in claim 16, wherein saidcomposition is added to an article of manufacture to provideantimicrobial characteristics.

Another embodiment is directed to a composition having antimicrobialactivity comprising: a mixed-metal halide particle comprising at leastone copper halide and at least a second metal halide; at least onefunctionalizing agent in contact with said mixed-metal halide particle,said functionalizing agent stabilizing said particle in a carrier suchthat an antimicrobially effective amount of ions are released into theenvironment of a microbe. The composition of claim 1 wherein saidcarrier is a liquid. The composition of claim 2 wherein saidfunctionalizing agent is soluble in said liquid carrier. The compositionof claim 1 wherein said particles are complexed by said functionalizingagent. The composition of claim 2 wherein said liquid carrier iswater-based.

The composition of claim 2 wherein said liquid carrier is oil-based. Thecomposition of claim 2 wherein said particles are suspended by saidliquid carrier in solution. The composition of claim 1 wherein saidcarrier is a solid. The composition of claim 8 wherein said solidcarrier comprises a melt-blend plastic. The composition of claim 1wherein said halide is iodide. The composition of claim 1 wherein saidmixed-metal halide particle has an average size range of from about 1000nm to about 4 nm. The composition of claim 1 wherein said mixed-metalhalide particle has a solubility of less than about 100 ppm in water.The composition of claim 1 wherein said mixed-metal halide particle hasa solubility of less than about 15 ppm in water. The composition ofclaim 1 wherein said functionalizing agent is selected from the groupconsisting of an amino acid, a thiol, a hydrophilic polymer, ahydrophobic polymer, an amphiphilic polymer, surfactants and atarget-specific ligand. The composition of claim 14 wherein saidhydrophilic polymer is selected from the group consisting ofpolyvinylpyrrolidone, polyethyleneglycol and copolymers and blendscomprising at least one of the monomers which form the said polymers.The composition of claim 1 wherein said functionalizing agent complexessaid mixed-metal halide particle. The composition of claim 1 whereinsaid second metal comprises silver. The composition of claim 17 whereinsaid functionalized mixed-metal halide particle releases copper andsilver cations into the environment of a microbe. The composition ofclaim 17 wherein said functionalized mixed-metal halide particlereleases copper and silver cations in an amount sufficient to inhibitthe growth of or kill said microbes. The composition of claim 17 whereinsaid mixed-metal halides are selected from the group consisting ofCu—AgI, Cu—AgBr and Cu—AgCl. The composition of claim 20 wherein theweight ratio of Cu:Ag ranges from about 10:90 to about 90:10. Anotherembodiment is a composition having antimicrobial activity comprising: amixed-metal halide particle comprising copper iodide and a silverhalide; at least one functionalizing agent in contact with saidmixed-metal halide particle, said functionalizing agent stabilizing saidparticle in a carrier such that an antimicrobially effective amount ofcopper and silver ions are released into the environment of a microbe.

Another embodiment is directed to a method of inhibiting growth of orkilling microbes comprising the steps of contacting a microbialenvironment with an effective amount of a composition comprising:particles comprising at least one inorganic copper salt; at least onefunctionalizing agent in contact with said particles, saidfunctionalizing agent stabilizing said particles in a carrier such thatan antimicrobially effective amount of ions arc released into themicrobial environment. The composition of claim 1 wherein said carrieris a liquid. The composition of claim 2 wherein said functionalizingagent is soluble in said liquid carrier. The composition of claim 1wherein said particles are complexed by said functionalizing agent. Thecomposition of claim 2 wherein said liquid carrier is water-based. Thecomposition of claim 2 wherein said liquid carrier is oil-based. Thecomposition of claim 2 wherein said particles are suspended by saidliquid carrier in solution. The composition of claim 1 wherein saidcarrier is a solid. The composition of claim 8 wherein said solidcarrier comprises a melt-blend plastic. The method of claim 1 whereinsaid inorganic copper salt comprises a copper halide salt. The method ofclaim 1 wherein contacting a microbial environment comprises dispersingsaid composition in a monomer or polymer in an antimicrobially effectiveamount, and then applying said monomer or polymer dispersion to asurface capable of being protected against the presence of microbes. Themethod of claim 1 wherein contacting a microbial environment comprisesdispersing said composition in a liquid in an antimicrobially effectiveamount, and then contacting a surface capable of being protected againstthe presence of microbes with said dispersion. The method of claim 1wherein contacting a microbial environment comprises dispersing saidcomposition in a melt-blend, extrudable or injection moldable polymer.The method of claim 13 further comprising the step of combining saiddispersion with other melt-blend, extrudable or injectionmoldable-capable polymers, and then manufacturing an article from saidcomposition dispersed in said melt-blend, extrudable orinjection-moldable polymer. The method of claim 1 wherein thecomposition contains at least about 12 ppm of theantimicrobially-effective composition. The composition of claim 10wherein said halide is Iodide. The composition of claim 1 wherein saidparticles have an average size range of from about 1000 nm to about 4nm. The composition of claim 1 wherein said inorganic copper salt has asolubility of less than about 100 mg/liter in water. The composition ofclaim 1 wherein said inorganic copper salt has a solubility of less thanabout 15 mg/liter in water. The composition of claim 1 wherein saidfunctionalizing agent is selected from the group consisting of aminoacids, thiols, hydrophilic polymers, hydrophobic polymers, amphiphilicpolymers, surfactants and ligand-specific binding agents. Thecomposition of claim 20 wherein said amino acid is selected from any ofaspartic acid, leucine and lysine. The composition of claim 20 whereinsaid thiol is selected from the group consisting of aminothiol,thioglycerol, thioglycine, thiolactic acid, thiomalic acid, thioocticacid and thiosilane. The composition of claim 20 wherein saidhydrophilic polymer is selected from the group consisting ofpolyvinylpyrrolidone, polyethyleneglycol and copolymers and blendscomprising at least one of the monomers which form the said polymers.The composition of claim 20 wherein said hydrophobic polymer is selectedfrom the group consisting of polyurethanes, acrylic polymers, epoxies,silicones and fluorosilicones. The composition of claim 10 wherein saidfunctionalizing agent complexes said copper halide salt. Anotherembodiment is directed to a method of inhibiting growth of or killingmicrobes comprising the steps of contacting a microbial environment withan effective amount of a composition comprising: particles comprising atleast one inorganic copper salt selected from the group consisting ofCuI, CuBr and CuCl and having an average size of less than about 1000nm; at least one functionalizing agent in contact with said particles,said functionalizing agent being present at a ratio of from about 100:1to about 0.5:1.

Another embodiment of the invention is directed to a method ofinhibiting growth of or killing bacteria comprising the steps ofcontacting a bacterial environment with an effective amount of acomposition comprising: particles comprising at least one inorganiccopper salt; at least one functionalizing agent in contact with saidparticles, said functionalizing agent stabilizing said particles in acarrier such that an antibacterially effective amount of ions arereleased into the bacterial environment.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIG. 1 is a bar chart showing the growth and/or inhibition of Bacilluscereus spores when treated with various combinations of functionalizednanoparticles of the invention.

FIG. 2 is a bar chart showing the effectiveness of CuI against thegrowth of Bacillus cereus spores.

FIG. 3 is a plot of kill rate (Log₁₀ reduction) of Pseudomonasaeruginosa against time obtained using functionalized particles of thepresent invention incorporated as disclosed into various fabrics.Samples were tested both initially and after washing 3 times and 10times in ordinary household detergent. “Sample 0×” indicates it wasnever washed; “Sample 3×” was washed three times; and Sample “10×” tentimes. Uncoated cloth was the control.

FIG. 4 is a bar chart of Pseudomonas aeruginosa over a 5 hour periodmeasuring OD600 and response to various metal nanoparticles of theinvention, of solid bodies coated with functionalized particles.

FIG. 5 is a plot of Optical Density (OD, Y-axis) against P. aeruginosagrowth and/or inhibition by copper iodide particles and Ag—CuI mixedmetal halides, and a control.

FIG. 6 is a plot of Optical Density (OD, Y-axis) against S. aureusgrowth and/or inhibition by copper iodide particles and Ag—CuI mixedmetal halides, and a control.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF EMBODIMENTS OF THE INVENTION 1. Introduction

The present invention is concerned broadly with compositions andparticles of oligodynamic metals and their compounds, and withcombinations of such compositions and particles with other knownantimicrobials, with particles provided with functionalized surfaces,with the application of such particles to the surfaces of solid bodies,with the incorporation of such particles in coating solutions to beapplied to polymeric, ceramic or metallic bodies thereby imbuing in suchcoated bodies and bodies with particle-containing surfaces desiredantimicrobial activity, with solid bodies containing functionalizedparticles which have desirable antimicrobial properties, and withcombinations of the present functionalized antimicrobial particles withknown antimicrobial agents to achieve enhanced antimicrobial activity.

The inventors associated with this patent have made the surprisingdiscovery that particles made of certain metal salts have much greaterefficacy against a broad range of bacteria, viruses, molds and fungithan known silver-only based antimicrobial particles. In particular, ithas been discovered that the copper halide salt, copper iodide (“CuI”),when formulated in accordance with the teachings herein, is surprisinglyeffective as a broad-spectrum, fast-acting antimicrobial agent.Therefore, a first embodiment of the invention is directed to acomposition having antimicrobial activity comprising a particlecomprising at least one inorganic copper salt, the particle preferablyhaving an average size of less than about 1000 nm; and at least onefunctionalizing agent in contact with the particle, the functionalizingagent stabilizing the particles in a carrier such that anantimicrobially effective amount of ions are released into the environsof the microbe. As discussed below the functionalizing agent may haveseveral functions. One function is stabilizing the particle in a carrier(in liquids) so that particles do not agglomerate and are uniformlydistributed. In addition they may also assist in releasingantimicrobially effective amounts of ions into the environment of amicrobe. Some embodiments of the invention include inorganic coppersalts. Copper halides such as copper bromide and copper chloridecomprise other embodiments, but copper iodide is the embodiment that hasbeen studied the most. Copper (I) halide particles are only sparinglysoluble in water, so they will tend to agglomerate (“clump”) in waterunless they are somehow dispersed. In one embodiment, the particles are“functionalized” by modifying their surface chemistry so that they aremore stable in solution, are more attracted to microbes and otherpathogenic organisms, and are more compatible when added asantimicrobial agents to other surface coating formulations such aspaints, resins and moldable plastic articles of manufacture.Functionalizing agents may include polymers especially hydrophilic andhydrophobic polymers, monomers, surfactants, amino acids, thiols,glycols, esters, carbohydrates and microbe-specific ligands. Embodimentsof functionalizing agents may include polyurethanes and water solublepolymers such as polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP) and polyethylene glycol(PEG), which stabilize CuI nanoparticles, facilitate dissolution inpaints, and also helps adherence to the external microbial surfacesthereby bringing the copper ions into close proximity to their target.Functionalization agents may also include hydrophobic polymers which areused as emulsions and solutions to modify the particulate surfaces. Bothof these factors, the nature of the metal halide and the qualities ofthe functionalizing agent, are material to the overall efficacy of theantimicrobial composition.

2. Defined Terms

The term “amino acids” includes any of the twenty naturally-occurringamino acids known to be critical to human health, but also anynon-standard amino acids. An amino acid is conventionally defined asH₂NCHRCOOH where the R group may be any organic substituent. Preferredembodiments of the current invention include a subset including asparticacid, leucine and lysine which have demonstrated utility in stabilizingthe particles in a carrier, although other amino acids may have alsohave utility as functionalizing agents.

The term “amount of functionalizing agent sufficient to stabilize ametal salt in the solvent” refers to the amount, on a weight-to-weightbasis, of any suitable polymer mentioned herein capable of holding insuspension a metal salt in an aqueous or nonaqueous environment so thatthe metal salt will not settle out of solution (in the case of a liquidcomposition including monomeric compositions) or more viscous media(such as an ointment, cream, or polymer).

The term “amount sufficient to inhibit the growth of microbes” in oneembodiment is determined by the effect upon a microbe's growth as testedin an assay. The growth-inhibiting amount will vary depending upon thetype of metal salt, the precise functionalizing agent, the concentrationof the salt in the functionalizing agent, the size of the saltparticles, the salt's aqueous solubility, the pH, the genus and speciesof the bacterium, fungus, spore or other pathogen, etc. One conventionalmeasure is the Minimum Inhibitory Concentration (or MIC₅₀) of an agentrequired to inhibit the growth of 50% of the starting population. Therelated term “minimum amount sufficient to kill a microbe” is alsodetermined empirically. A conventional measurement is the MinimumBactericidal Concentration to kill 50%, or MBC₅₀. The antimicrobialeffectiveness can also be evaluated by measuring the decrease inmicrobial populations as a function of time or by measuring the changein optical density of microbial populations exposed to the antimicrobialagents to vs. without such exposure.

The term “amphiphilic polymers” is directed to water-soluble polymersthat have both hydrophilic and hydrophobic moieties which makes themcapable of solvating the two disparate phases. Some examples ofamphiphilic polymers include but are not limited to block copolymers,including those block copolymers where at least one block is selectedfrom the hydrophilic polymer list, and at least one block may beselected from the list of the hydrophobic polymer list. Other examplesare PVP-block-polypropyleneoxide-block;polyethyleneoxide-block-polypropyleneoxide-block-polyethyleneoxide-block;polyethyleneoxide-block-polypropylene oxide-block.

Monomers include those materials which have the ability to attach to thesurfaces of the particles and also react or bond with matrices in whichsuch modified particles are introduced into. A “matrix material” is apolymer to which this monomer would bind to by reaction or by physicalassociation such as complexation. Some examples of monomers arepolyolys, silanes, metal alkoxides, acrylic polyols, methacrylicpolyols, glycidyl esters, acrylics and methacrylics.

The term “an average size of less than about XX nm”, where “XX” is avariable for the number of nanometers, is defined herein as the averageparticle size, as measured by any conventional means such as dynamiclight scattering or microscopy, of a sampling of particles wherein theaverage is less than about XX nanometers in diameter, assuming forpurposes of the calculation that the irregular particles have anapproximate diameter, that is, that they are approximately spherical.This assumption is purely for the calculation of average particle size,due to the particles often being non-spherical in shape. Methods used tomeasure particle size include dynamic light scattering, scanningelectron microscopy or transmission electron microscopy. Embodiments ofthe present invention have demonstrated a range of average particlesizes from about 1000 nm to about 4 nm, including average particle sizesof less than about 1,000 nm, less than about 300 nm, less than about 100nm, less than about 30 nm, and less than about 10 nm. Smaller particlesizes in general may be preferred for certain applications, but theaverage size relates to the release rate characteristics of the ionsfrom the particles, so particle size and release rate areinterdependent. Embodiments of the invention may also be made in othershapes, for example sheets or rods where some of the dimensions may beseveral microns, in which case the average size of such objects would bemeasured in relation to their smallest dimension being less than about1000 nm, 300 nm, 100 nm, 30 nm and less than 10 nm. In the case of afiber, the smallest dimension is its cross-section diameter; in the caseof a sheet it is usually its thickness.

The term “anti-bacterial effect” means the killing of, or inhibition orstoppage of the growth and/or reproduction of bacteria.

The term “anti-fungal effect” means the killing of, or inhibition orstoppage of the growth and/or reproduction of molds and/or fungi.

The term “antimicrobial effect” is broadly construed to mean inhibitionor stoppage of the normal metabolic processes required for continuedlife, or continued growth of any of the microorganisms in the classes ofbacteria, viruses, mold, fungus or spores. “Antimicrobial effect”includes killing of any individual or group of bacteria, viruses, mold,fungus or spores.

An “antimierobially effective amount” of any agent mentioned herein ashaving an antimicrobial effect is a concentration of the agentsufficient to inhibit the normal cellular processes includingmaintenance and growth of a bacterium, virus, mold, fungus, spore,biofilm or other pathogenic species. Antimicrobially effective amountsare measured herein by use of assays that measure the reduction ingrowth or decline in their populations of a microbe. One measure ofreduction is to express the decrease in population in logarithmic scaletypical of a specific microbial species. That is, a 1 log reduction isequivalent to a 90% reduction versus a control, a 2 log reduction is a99% reduction, etc.

The term “anti-spore effect” means the killing of, or inhibition orstoppage of the growth and/or reproduction of spores.

The term “anti-viral effect” means the killing of, or inhibition orstoppage of the growth and/or reproduction of viruses.

The term “carrier” as used herein is a medium for containing andapplying the functionalized inorganic metal salt particles so that theymay be incorporated into surfaces so that ions from the metal salts willbecome available to contact and thereby kill or inhibit microbes thatmay be or become present on the surface. A carrier may be a liquidcarrier, a semi-liquid carrier, or a solid carrier, or it may changestates during the processes of dissolution and application. For purposesof exemplification, in the case of a liquid carrier such as an aqueousliquid, a dry powder comprising metal halide particles functionalizedwith a polymer such as PVP may be added to the water and will dissolveor disperse in the carrier due to the physical and/or chemicalcharacteristics of the PVP, such that the particle-PVP complex isdispersed uniformly. The water carrier may then be evaporated from thesurface to which it was applied, leaving a uniform layer of particle-PVPfrom which ions may be made available to the surface over time. The sameconsiderations apply where additional additives may be added to thecarrier, e.g., polymer emulsions, where upon evaporation of carrier(water), a film is formed of this polymer comprising well dispersedfunctionalized metal salt particles. As an example, many acrylic andurethane polymeric aqueous emulsions are used for a variety of coatingapplications such as furniture and trim varnishes, floor finishes andpaints. These typically comprise of surfactants to disperse thehydrophobic polymers in the aqueous media. Functionalized metal saltparticles may be added to these, or they are formed or reduced in sizewithin these emulsions so that the content of the emulsionsfunctionalize the particles as they are formed. The functionalizationmaterials along with the shape and other characteristics of theantimicrobial material (metal salts) may impart a leafing property,which means as the carrier in these coatings dries out, surface tensioncauses these particles to rise to the surface thus naturally providing ahigher concentration of antimicrobial material on the surface of suchcoatings Similar relevancy applies to a hydrophobic liquid carrier suchas an oil-based paint or an epoxy resin. Carriers may be a monomer, ormay be optionally supplemented with a monomer that is added into the mixof the removable carrier and functionalized particles, and then duringprocessing the monomer polymerizes (with or without crosslinking) whichmay be accompanied by the evaporation of the carrier if present to forma polymerized product with functionalized particles dispersed therein.In the case of a solid carrier such as when incorporating functionalizedparticles in a solid plastic, the same dry powder particle-PVP complexcan be added to plastic powders or pellets, and then the plastic isbrought to a molten state, where all the components are mixed (or meltblended). The surface functionalization of the particles facilitates oneor more of several desirable attributes, such as more uniform dispersionof the particles (less agglomeration); better adhesion of the particlesto the plastic so as to not compromise physical properties of theplastic or the product made from it; and provide a pathway for the ionsfrom the metal salt to be released and travel to the surfaces wheremicrobes may be present. In this case the carrier or the plastic doesnot evaporate but is an integral part of the final product after itchanges its state from a liquid to a solid. Some solid plastic materialsderive their properties by being multiphasic (having two or morephases). For example, polymer blends and alloys of two differentpolymers, or block and graft polymers in solid state typically formmultiple phases to derive their unique physical and chemical properties.When such multiphasic plastics are used, the functionalization of thefunctionalized particles may be so tailored that it is more compatiblewith one of these phases and thus distributes the particlespreferentially in that phase, or may be tailored to preferentiallyposition the particles at the interphase area of these phases.

A “copper halide salt” is a member of the copper metal family combinedwith any of the halides, typically defined in the Periodic Table of theElements as fluorine, chlorine, bromine and iodine. Of these, preferredembodiments of the invention commonly include iodide, bromide andchloride. Copper halide salts may include both copper (I) and (II)varieties, for example Cu(I)Cl and Cu(II)Cl₂.

The term “emulsion” refers to those stabilized fluid suspensions orpolymeric latex fluids, where in a fluid, particles or droplets of anincompatible material are stabilized through the use of surfactants.

The term “environs of a microbe” is any 1) surface actually or capableof being inhabited by a microbe that may thereafter be contacted by ahuman, or 2) in the case of an aerosol, any liquid droplet that may nowor in the future contain a microbe whether on a surface or suspended inair, or 3) in the case of a water-borne microbe any body of liquid thatmay carry a microbe now or in the future.

The terms “external environment of a microbe” and “internal environmentof a microbe” refer to the immediate environment external to themicrobe, that is, the liquid, gel or solid the microbe inhabits, and theinternal volume of a microbe, respectively. The external environment ofa microbe is often that of a liquid (usually aqueous) in order for themicrobe to live, and for the antimicrobial metal salt or its constituentions to be communicated to the microbe. The external environment doesnot need to be liquid, however, but must provide for the transmission ofthe antimicrobial agent to come into proximity of the microbe, where itcan then be taken up by any of several different mechanisms.

The term “functionalization” means modification of the surface chemistryof the particles to effectuate any one or more of the following: 1)improve their interaction with other materials, especially withmicrobial species and 2) to improve their interaction and uniformity ofdistribution with constituents of coatings and bulk materials, and 3) toprovide increased stability for the particles dispersed in liquidsuspension. The term “functionalizing agent” may include in a firstembodiment a variety of polymeric species, such as polyvinyl pyrrolidone(PVP), polyethylene glycol (PEG), polyurethane polymers, acrylicpolymers, or polymers with ionic moieties. The functionalization agentsmay also play additional roles, they may modify the pH of the solutionand hence bind differently to the particles, or they may act as reducingagents as in the case of PVP. The polymers may be hydrophilic orhydrophobic. Functionalization may also be carried out in a secondembodiment using small molecule (non-polymeric) species such as aminoacids (or combinations of amino acids), peptides and polypeptides. In athird embodiment thiols (or combinations of thiols) also havedemonstrated utility. Other embodiments include carbohydrates, glycols,esters, silanes, surfactants, monomers and their combinations. In yetanother embodiment functionalization may refer to adding a ligand orgroup of ligands to the particle so that it specifically binds to areceptor or other biological target on a microbe. One may also usecombinations of the above functionalizing agents in the samefunctionalizing formulation to effect a targeted approach for specificgenus and species of microbes.

The term “hydrophilic polymer” refers to water-soluble polymers havingan affinity or ability to complex the nanoparticles of copper saltsshown herein. Examples of functionalizing agent compositions include,but are not limited to, polyurethanes, including polyetherpolyurethanes, polyester polyurethanes, polyurethaneureas, and theircopolymers; polyvinylpyrrolidones and their copolymers (e.g., with vinylacetate and/or caprolactum); polyvinyl alcohols; polyethyleneoxide,polyethylene glycols and their copolymers; polypropylene glycols andtheir copolymers; polyethyleneimine, polyoxyethylenes and theircopolymers; polyacrylic acid; polyacrylamide;poly(diallyldimethylammonium)chloride, carboxymethyl cellulose;cellulose and its derivatives; dextrans and other polysaccharides; tostarches; guar; xantham and other gums and thickeners; collagen;gelatins; boric acid ester of glycerin and other biological polymers.Particular embodiments of hydrophilic polymers include polyvinylpyrrolidone, polyethyleneglycol and copolymers and blends comprising atleast one of the monomers which form the aforementioned polymers.

The term “hydrophobic polymers” refers to water-soluble polymerssimilarly having an affinity or ability to complex the nanoparticles ofcopper salts shown herein, but being having a hydrophobic nature. Someexamples of hydrophobic polymers include but are not limited topolytetrafluoroethylene, polyvinylchloride, polyvinylacetate, celluloseacetate, poly(ethylene terephthalate), silicone, polyesters, polyamides,polyurethanes, polyurethaneureas, styrene block copolymers,polyoxymethylene, polymethyl methacrylate, polyacrylates,acrylic-butadiene-styrene copolymers, polyethylene, polystyrene,polypropylene, polypropylene oxide, polyisoprene, acrylonitrile rubber,epoxies, polyester epoxies, and mixtures, or copolymers thereof.

The term “inorganic copper salt” includes relatively water insoluble,inorganic copper compounds. Inorganic copper salt is an ionic coppercompound where copper cations along with anions of other inorganicmaterials form this compound. Typically these compounds release copperions (Cu⁺ or Cu⁺⁺) when such salt is put in proximity to water. Thosecopper salts are preferred that have low water solubility, i.e.,solubility lower than 100 mg/liter and preferably less than 15 mg/liter.Some of the preferred copper salts are cuprous halides, cuprous oxideand cuprous thiocyanate.

The term “polar aprotic solvent” includes those liquids having adielectric constant greater than about 15 that have no labile protons,non-limiting examples including acetone, acetonitrile, dimethylformamideand dimethylsulfoxide.

The term “polar nonaqueous solvent” includes those liquids (except forwater) having a dielectric constant greater than about 15. Non-limitingexamples include alcohols such as methanol, ethanol, butanol andpropanol, and acids such as formic acid.

The term “releases copper cations” generally refers to the makingavailable of copper cations in the immediate environment of a microbefrom the metal salt held in suspension by the functionalizing agent. Therelease mechanism is not a controlling feature of the invention. In oneembodiment, release may occur by dissolution of copper ions from acopper halide particle, for example. In another embodiment, release maybe mediated by a functionalizing agent such as PVP which complexes thecopper cation until the PVP contacts a microbe thereby transferring thecation to the external environment of the microbe. Any number ofmechanisms could account for the release of the copper cations, and theinvention is not to be restricted to any mechanism. Also of potentialfor antimicrobial effect is the release of anions from the copper halideparticles, for example triiodide anion (I₃ ⁻) is a known antimicrobialagent.

The term “stabilizing said particle in a carrier” means to maintain thefunctionalized particle dispersed and separate from other particles inthe liquid carrier such that agglomeration and/or settling out ofsuspension is inhibited. The stability of a dispersion is measuredaccording to its “shelf life,” or time period over which there is noappreciable settling out of suspension of the dispersed element.Stabilized particles have a longer shelf life as compared to particlesof similar shape and size which are not stabilized. Typically forsimilar particles in similar solvents stabilized with similar materialsused at concentrations proportional to the surface area of theparticles, the shelf life of larger particles may be lower than theshelf life of the smaller particles. It should be noted that in somecases a few large particles are formed which may settle fast, however aslong as appreciable amounts (greater than 25%) by volume or by weight ofthe particles remain dispersed, that would still be a stable dispersion.Shelf lives preferably of at least eight hours, more preferably at least30 days, and most preferably at least 180 days are contemplated for thecompounds and particles of the invention hereunder. The term“dispersion” is distinguishable from a “suspension” in that a dispersiondoes not imply any permanence to the suspension.

The dispersions or liquid suspensions may be intermediate products ormay be the end products in which the antimicrobial materials are used.Examples are low viscosity liquids such as those used for liquid spraysto treat surfaces suspected of having a microbial problem in a specificarea, or the low viscosity liquids may be used as intermediates to beadded to paint formulations to make them antimicrobial. The inorganicmetal salt nanoparticles of the current invention may also be used inhigh viscosity liquid suspensions such as creams for topical use. Inend-use products higher suspension stability is preferred and inintermediates, the stability has to be sufficient for the process inwhich this intermediate is used. The terms “dispersion” and “suspension”are used interchangeably throughout this specification.

The term “surfactants” means nonionic, cationic, anionic or amphotericsurfactants, some specific examples are Brij, Tween, Triton X-100,Sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS), cetyltrimethylammonium chloride orcetyltrimethylammonium bromide. A large variety of surfactants arecommercially available. So long as the surfactant stabilizes theparticles of the invention, it falls within the spirit and scope of theclaims.

The term “thiol” generally refers to a chemical having an —SHsubstituent. Embodiments of the invention include thiols such asaminothiol, thioglycerol, thioglycine, thiolactic acid, thiomalic acid,thiooctic acid and thiosilane. Other thiols may also have utility in thecurrent invention. Other thiols useful in the invention will be watersoluble and have the capability of complexing metal halides and holdingthem in suspension in an aqueous environment.

3. The Compositions

a. Oligodynamic Metals

In one embodiment of the invention, the preferred material compositionscomprise at least one metal halide and the combination of one or moremetals with at least one metal halide. Presently preferred metals arecopper, zinc, silver and their alloys and also their halides, includingthose mixed halides formed simultaneously from more than one element.Compositions may include alloys comprising at least one of silver,copper and zinc. Example of these alloys are those of silver+copper,copper+tin (bronze) and copper+zinc (brass is an alloy of copper andzinc with typical copper concentrations in the range of 40 to 90% byweight, and may have additional elements, e.g., as in phosphor bronze).These alloys may provide better stability of particles in the processingor in end use applications against oxidation or non-desirable surfacereactions. Some other exemplary metal halides are germanium (II) iodide,germanium(IV) iodide, Tin(II) iodide, tin(IV) iodide),platinum(II)iodide, platinum(IV) iodide, Bismuth(III)iodide,Gold(I)iodide, Gold(III)iodide, Iron(II)iodide), cobalt(II)iodide),Nickel(II)iodide, Zinc(II)iodide, indium(III)iodide). The particles ofthis invention may also be fabricated in a core-shell geometry, whereinthe core may be a solid support for a coating comprising the desirablematerials as described above. As examples, core materials may beselected from silica, titania and carbon, or the cores may be porous.Preferred functionalized particles and combinations of particles ofparticular interest are silver halides and copper halides.

b. Copper Salts

The inorganic copper salt embodiments of the present invention includeconventional inorganic copper salts, with limited water solubility. Byway of exemplification the following inorganic copper compounds areillustrative but not limiting: Copper(II)iodate; Copper(I)iodide;Copper(I)chloride; Copper(I)bromide; Copper(I)oxide; Copper(I)acetate;Copper(I)sulfide; and Copper(I)thiocyanate.

The inorganic copper salts may have a range of water solubilitycharacteristics. However, it is preferred that the copper salts of thepresent invention have low water solubility (or water insoluble saltswith solubility less than 1 g/liter of water at room temperature) sothat they may have slow and predictable copper cation releasecharacteristics. In some formulations it may be desirable to also addCu(II) or more soluble salts so that some fraction of Cu ions areinstantly available. Cu(I) cations have shown the most efficacy againstthe various microbes tested. At room temperature, copper(I) saltsolubilities of less than about 100 mg/liter are preferred, and morepreferred are copper salts having less than about 15 mg/liter.

Other embodiments of copper (I) salts that may be useful in the presentinvention include halides where some of the copper has been substitutedwith other cations which may be other metals (forming mixed halidematerials), or a given halide may be substituted with other anions.Alternatively, the substitution may be organic in nature, Examples ofsuch substitutions include e.g., AgCuI₂, CH₃NCuI₂, Rb₃Cu₇Cl₁₀, RbCu₃Cl₄,CsCu₉I₁₀, CsCu₉Br₁₀, Rb₄Cu₁₆I₇Cl₁₃ and RbCu₄Cl₃I₂. In general one mayexpress these copper salts as P_(s)Cu_(t)X_((s+t)), where P is theorganic or a metal cation and X is a halide, preferably selected fromone or more of Cl, Br and I.

c. Copper Halides

Copper iodide (CuI), like most “binary” (containing only two elements)metal halides, is an inorganic material and forms a zinc blende crystallattice structure. It can be formed from a simple substitution reactionin water with copper (II) acetate and sodium or potassium iodide. Theproduct, CuI, simply precipitates out of solution since it is sparinglysoluble (0.020 mg/100 mL at 20° C.) in water. Copper iodide powder canbe purchased in bulk from numerous vendors. A grade with over 98% purityis particularly preferred.

Copper bromide (CuBr) is also an inorganic material having the samecrystal structure as CuI. It is commonly prepared by the reduction ofcupric salts with sulfite in the presence of bromide. For example, thereduction of copper(II) bromide with sulfite yields copper(I) bromideand hydrogen bromide. CuBr is also very slightly soluble in water.

Copper chloride shares the same crystal structure with CuBr and CuI andhas a solubility of 62 mg/100 mL. It can be made by the reaction ofmercury(II) chloride and copper metal.

Copper(I) fluoride disproportionates immediately into Cu(II) fluorideunless it is stabilized by complexation, so CuF is not a very usefulcopper halide particle source. Cu(II) fluoride is soluble in water andso it is not a source of Cu²⁺ cations, but is a source of Cu²⁺ cations.

d. Mixed-Metal Halides

Further embodiments of the invention are directed to mixed-metal halidesresultant from combinations of metal salts of which at least one elementis an oligodynamic metal. Such embodiments include silver-copper halide,silver-zinc halide, copper-zinc halide, etc. Preferred embodimentsinclude silver-copper halides. Embodiments may include halogens such asIodide, Bromide and Chloride. A particularly preferred embodiment isIodide.

A general procedure for synthesizing silver-copper-iodide(Ag_(1-x)Cu_(x)I) nanoparticles using silver nitrate, copper nitrate,potassium iodide, and polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP) as the functionalizingagent follows. This method results in solid solutions, meaning notseparate distinct phases of CuI and AgI but where one metal issubstituted for the other randomly:(1-x)AgNO₃+xCu(NO₃)₂+KI→Ag_(1-x)Cu_(x)I. The x coefficient was varied tochange the silver to copper ratio. The PVP concentration, which is knownto stabilize the nanoparticles, was varied for x=0.5(Ag_(0.5)Cu_(0.5)I).

Silver-copper-bromide nanoparticles were synthesized following the sameprocedure as for silver-copper-iodide using KBr instead of KI.Silver-copper-iodide-bromide nanoparticles were prepared in the samefashion using a combination of KI and KBr in a (1-y):(y) mole ratio.Antimicrobial activity was determined for Ag_(1-x)Cu_(x)I (x=0.25, 0.50,0.75) by measuring optical density at 600 nm after 3 hours at 25° C. forP. aureginosa and S. aureus. Results are shown in FIGS. 5 and 6discussed under the Experimental section.

e. Mixtures of Particles

In other embodiments the functionalized particles comprise mixtures orcombinations of functionalized inorganic salts of metals such as silveror copper. The functionalized particles comprise halides of otheroligodynamic metals, in some cases combined with functionalizedparticles of silver metals and/or copper halides or silver metal orcopper metal. In a further embodiment, the functionalized particlescomprise compounds of silver and copper other than their halides. In afurther embodiment, these compositions, particularly compositionscomprising copper halides especially copper iodide may be combined withother known antimicrobial or antifungal agents. One may also combineparticles of different sizes/composition/solubilities to control thedelivery rate and the longevity of the antimicrobial efficacy of theproducts where such particles are incorporated into. As an example, onemay combine particles about 300 nm in size with those that are less than30 nm, or one may combine particles larger than 300 nm in size withthose that are smaller than 300 nm, etc. In applications such as thosewhere copper or other compounds are used for antimicrobial effects, onemay combine those with materials of this invention. As a specificexample in marine coatings where zinc pyrithione, cuprous oxide orcopper thiocyanate may be used for antimicrobial properties, one maycombine those with the same composition (e.g., cuprous oxide and copperthiocyanate) but with size smaller than 300 nm and/or functionalizednanoparticles as taught in this invention. As another specific examplethese materials may be combined with copper iodide as taught in thisinvention.

Embodiments of the mixture of particles are directed to a compositionhaving antimicrobial activity comprising (a) a mixture of particlescomprising particles of an inorganic copper salt and particles of atleast a second inorganic metal compound or metal; and (b) at least onefunctionalizing agent in contact with the mixture of particles, thefunctionalizing agent stabilizing the mixture of particles in a carriersuch that an antimicrobially effective amount of ions are released intothe environment of the microbe. A further embodiment of the inorganiccopper salt comprises a copper halide salt. Yet a further embodiment ofthe invention includes the second metal being selected from the groupconsisting of silver, gold, copper, zinc and bismuth or alloys thereof.Yet a further embodiment of the invention comprises a second inorganicmetal compound being a metal halide salt wherein the halide is selectedfrom the group consisting of iodide, bromide and chloride. Yet a furtherembodiment of the invention includes the previous composition whereinthe mixture of particles has an average size of less than about 100 nm,less than about 30 nm, or less than about 10 nm. Further embodiments ofthe invention include where the mixture of particles has a solubility ofless than about 100 ppm in water, or less than about 15 ppm in water.Embodiments of the invention are also directed to functionalizing agentsselected from the group consisting of an amino acid, a thiol, ahydrophilic polymer and a target-specific ligand. Another embodiment ofthe invention is directed to the previous composition wherein the secondinorganic metal compound comprises silver. A further embodiment of theinvention is directed to the previous composition wherein thefunctionalized mixture of particles releases copper and silver cationsinto the environment of a microbe. Embodiments of the invention are alsodirected to compositions wherein the functionalized mixture of particlesreleases copper and silver cations in an amount sufficient to inhibitthe growth of or kill the microbes.

Further embodiments of the invention are directed to compositionswherein the inorganic copper salts and a second inorganic metal compoundparticles are selected from the group consisting of CuI, CuBr, CuCl,AgI, AgBr and AgCl.

For many applications cost is an important issue. Addition of preciousmetals or their salts to the compositions of this invention could makeantimicrobial materials less attractive economically. As the copperhalides of this invention have shown high efficacy against a variety ofmicrobes and are less costly than their cousins the silver halides, thusfor many applications mixing copper halides with silver, gold, platinumor other precious metals and their salts is not necessary. If needed forspecific applications, the precious metals and their salts may beutilized in much lower concentrations.

f. Functionalizing Agents

An embodiment of the present invention is the “functionalization” of themetal salt particles. In functionalizing the surfaces of the particlesof oligodynamic metals and their compounds or salts, a number ofchemical species may effectively be used, which may be selected from oneor more of the categories below. These functionalization agents arepreferably present while the particles are being formed, either duringchemical synthesis, or during physical grinding when they are beingground to a finer size from larger particles. The amount of surfacefunctionalization agent increases with decreasing particle size inproportion to the overall change in surface area exposed forfunctionalizing. Any ratio of the relative amounts of the metal saltparticles and the functionalization material may be used, typicallythese are present in a molar ratio (metal salt:functionalization agent)in a range of about 1:0.5 to about 1:100. For polymericfunctionalization agents, the molarity is calculated based on theirrepeat units.

Surface functionalization typically imparts one or more of manyattributes, such as preventing particles from agglomeration (e.g.,promoting suspension stability, particularly in liquid products),enabling particles to attach to various surfaces of an object or even tothe microbes, and assisting particles to attach to matrix materials whenthese are incorporated as composites into other materials. Thisfunctionalization also helps to disperse the antimicrobial particleseasily into these matrices (e.g., blending with thermoset orthermoplastic polymers which are later molded into objects). Anadvantage of using finer particles as long as they are well dispersed inliquids or solids (including coatings) is that at even lower useconcentrations the distance between particles is small. This results inbetter surface coverage of articles by such antimicrobial materials, andalso increases their efficacy as there is more surface area of thesematerials available to interact with the microbes. For particles thatare a few nanometers in size, the surface functionalization can alsoinfluence their transportation into the interior of the microbes.Functionalizing agents that may facilitate transport of nanoparticles tothe surface of a microbe include amino acids and combinations of aminoacids, peptides and polypeptides. Using these species as thefunctionalizing agents, it was found that when certain embodiments ofamino acids are used to functionalize the surfaces of the oligodynamicmetal-containing nanoparticles, enhanced antimicrobial activity wasobtained. Amino acids which are particularly preferred as amino acidfunctionalizing agents for the present nanoparticles include asparticacid, leucine and lysine, although numerous other amino acids may haveefficacy. Potentially useful are combinations of amino acids as well aspeptides, dipeptides, tripeptides and polypeptides of amino acids. Otherembodiments of functionalizing agents include carbohydrates such asmono- and di-saccharides and their derivatives, glycol and alcoholicesters (e.g., Schercemol™ and Hydramol™ esters from Lubrizol (Wickliffe,Ohio)).

Other embodiments of the invention are directed to various polymers thatmay be used for functionalization. Typically the functionalizationprocedure is done in a medium in which these polymers are present in asolution and/or an emulsion form. Polyvinylpyrollidone and itscopolymers are one embodiment that can be an effective agent formodifying the surface chemistry of tailored particles and imbuing themwith desirable antimicrobial activity. Examples of other polymericsurface modifiers are polyacrylic acid, copolymers comprising acrylic(including methacrylic acid) groups, polyethyelene and polypropyleneglycols (and their copolymers), polymers with alcoholic groups,urethanes, epoxies and carbohydrate polymers. Each of the above polymersmay have a range of molecular weights, typically in the range of about1,500 and 2,000,000 Daltons, although molecular weights less than500,000 are preferred, and molecular weights less than 25,000 are mostpreferred. Solubility and solution viscosity of the polymer generallycorrelates to average molecular weight with high weights being lesssoluble in water and resulting in more viscous solutions.

Another embodiment of functionalizing agents includes thiolfunctionalizing agents in addition to the amino acid orpolyvinylpyrrolidone. Thiol modifying agents useful for functionalizingthe antimicrobial nanoparticles include aminothiol, thioglycerol,thioglycine, thiolactic acid, thiomalic acid, thiooctic acid andthiosilane. Combinations of thiol modifying agents can also be used inthe present invention.

The functionalization of the particles may also provide additionalattributes desirable for using them in practical applications. Theseattributes include the promotion of adhesion and/or reaction of theparticles to specific matrices such as in bulk materials and coatingsand the enhancement of their antimicrobial properties by making theinteraction between particles and microbes more attractive or bycoupling or combining them with other materials for specificapplications. Examples of other materials with which the presentantimicrobial particles can be combined include antimicrobial agentswhich target a specific microbe or group of microbes, or materials thatunder illumination or humid conditions provide modified antimicrobialactivity, or materials that under anerobic conditions exhibit decreasedantimicrobial activity for their safe disposal in landfills. Examples ofcoupling agents and monomers for increasing their compatibility withvarious polymeric matrices include organosilanes (e.g., epoxy silanesfor use in epoxy matrices, mercapto silanes for use in urethane andnylon matrices, acrylic, methacrylic and vinyl silanes for use inreactive polyester and acrylic polymers). Other monomers include thosematerials which have the ability to attach to the surfaces of theparticles and also react or bond with matrices in which such modifiedparticles are introduced into. Some examples are polyolys, silanes,metal alkoxides, acrylic polyols, methacrylic polyols, glycidyl esteracrylics and methacrylics.

Embodiments of the invention also make use of surfactants for surfacemodification. The term surfactants would mean nonionic, cationic,anionic and amphoteric surfactants, some specific examples being Brij,Tween, Triton X-100, Sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS),cetyltrimethylammonium chloride or cetyltrimethylammonium bromide (allavailable from Sigma-Aldrich Co, Milwaukee, Wis.).

One may also use surfactants (includes emulsifiers) to form emulsions(includes latex) of polymers and other materials, wherein such emulsionsare used to modify the surfaces of the particles. For this purpose thepolymers may be hydrophobic. Some examples are polyurethane emulsions,acrylic emulsions, fluorosilicone emulsions, epoxy emulsions, etc.

Another embodiment of a functionalizing agent is a ligand-specificbinding agent. As a specific example, it has been demonstrated (CorinneK. Cusumano, et al., Sci Transl Med 3, 109ra115 (2010 (DOI:10.1126/scitranslmed.3003021 “Treatment and Prevention of Urinary TractInfection with Orally Active FimH Inhibitors”) that mannoside compoundsare effective in preventing uropathogenic E. coli infection in women byinhibiting the bacteria's ability to bind to epithelial cells of thebladder via FimH receptors. Since it has been demonstrated thatmannoside compounds inhibit binding of E. coli to uroepithelial cells bybinding FimH receptors, one may use such compounds to modify thesurfaces of particles of this invention to specifically target E. coli.In one embodiment the mannoside compounds could be included in afunctionalization formulation for the metal salt nanoparticles of theinvention. In another embodiment mannoside compounds could be includedwithin the coatings used in urinary tract catheters which would locallyrelease the inorganic metal salt compounds to specifically target theparticles to E. coli or any number of other pathogens for which aspecific ligand-based approach is desired. There are numerous examplesof other pathogenic infections which are specific to different parts ofthe body and tailored chemistries may be desirable to modify theparticles/and or the matrices where particles of this invention arepresent. One of ordinary skill will be able to identify the variousligand-target combinations to design any manner of ligand-specifictargeting approach for the particles of the present invention.

Other embodiments of the invention include affinity-based targetingmechanisms such as using certain inherent properties of microbes'external structures to target the metal halide nanoparticles to. Forexample, the peptidoglycan layer of Gram-positive bacteria is a polymerof sugars and peptides and has a generally negative charge. Otherpolymers, such as PVP or PEG may be attracted to the peptidoglycansurface on the basis of hydrophobic interactions, and once there, maystick to and deliver the stabilized metal halide particles as theyslowly dissolve. Likewise, Mannose-binding lectin (MBL) and/orLipopolysaccharide binding protein (LBP) may be included asfunctionalizing agents. MBL recognizes certain carbohydrate patterns onmicrobial surfaces and LBP binds to Lipopolysaccharide, which comprisesa majority of the outer membrane of Gram-negative bacteria.

g. Porous Particles

Other embodiments of the invention are directed to compositions havingantimicrobial activity comprising a metal halide, and a porous carrierparticle in which the metal halide is infused, the carrier particlestabilizing the metal halide such that an antimicrobially effectiveamount of ions are released into the environment of the microbe. Theterms “porous particle,” “porous carrier particle” and “carrierparticle” are used interchangeably herein. In one embodiment, one mayform the antimicrobial compositions within the porosity of larger porouscarrier particles. Metals and metal compounds or salts, particularlymetal halides are preferred materials for this infusion. For example onemay infuse silver bromide or particularly copper iodide into the pores.The porous particles should preferably have interconnected pores. Apreferred upper range of the carrier particle is below 100 μm, and morepreferably below 20 μm and most preferably below 5 μm. In otherembodiments it is preferred that the surfaces of the porous particles(including pore surfaces) are hygroscopic (e.g., an abundance of silanolor other hydroxyl groups on the surface leads to hygroscopic materials).One preferred class of carrier particles that can be used are “widepore” silicas. The carrier particles may be of any shape, e.g.,spherical, irregular, angular, cylindrical, etc. For example,SILIASPHERE™ silicas from Silicycle (Quebec, Canada) may be used. Thepreferred silicas have a pore size (also referred to as average porediameter) in the range of 2 to 100 nm, more preferably 4 to 20 nm). Theporous carrier particles containing antimicrobial compositions in thepores can then be incorporated into bulk products, coatings, creams,gels and solutions to impart antimicrobial properties. These may beadded as fillers to polymers which may then be shaped into bulk productsvia molding, extrusion, etc.

These porous materials are not zeolites, as the zeolites containmolecular channels formed as part of the crystal structures ofaluminosilicates where the pore size (or average channel diameter) isgenerally less than 1 nm. The pore size in zeolites typically allowsonly single ions and very small molecules to pass through, and cannotaccommodate the formation of discrete nanoparticles of antimicrobialmaterials. Larger molecules (including polymers) and solutions can bepassed into and through the pores in the porous materials of thisinvention, and typically the pore geometry and/or sizes is irregular.

In a process embodiment of the invention, infusion of silver metal in aporous carrier particle is generally performed by starting with anaqueous solution of silver salt (e.g. silver nitrate with the surfacemodifiers (if used) dissolved therein) in water as described in theprocedures below. The porous particles would be added to this solutionso as to infuse the solution into the pores. The porous carrierparticles would then be removed and optionally dried. These particleswould then be added to an aqueous solution of reducing agent (e.g.,0.25% w/w NaBH₄) which causes silver metal to precipitate within thepores and also on the surfaces of the porous carrier particles. Inanother process embodiment metal halides may be formed in the poreswhere the porous carrier particles are treated with aqueous copper orsilver salt solutions (or precursor solutions) followed by subjectingthese to salt solutions of the required halide ions. If surfacefunctionalization of the deposited materials is required, these saltsolutions may have surface functionalization agents, or these may besequentially treated with surface functionalization agent solutions,before being treated with catalysts or reactive solutions to convertthem to the desired halides or metals. These may then be subjected toanother series of similar treatment to precipitate more of the targetmetal or metal compound (as copper iodide) in the pores, or toprecipitate a second compound or metal in the pores (e.g., depositingAgBr in pores which previously have been treated to deposit CuI). Onemay also mix different types of porous particles comprising differentcompositions of metals and metal compounds. Of particular utility areporous to particles containing CuI and porous particles where asignificant fraction of the particles contain CuI and the remainingfraction contain other antimicrobial species, as Ag metal or AgBr.

Solvent selection plays a fundamental role in the use of porous carrierparticles for delivery of inorganic metal compounds. Since an importantpart of the process is to ensure that solutions easily soak into thepores of the porous particles, it is required that the surfaces of thepores are compatible with the solvents used to form these solutions. Inone embodiment, when the surfaces of the pores have hydrophilicproperties solvents with high dielectric constant such as water,ethanol, methanol, acetonitrile, dimethylformamide, etc., are easilywicked into the pores by capillary forces. The rate of release of ionscan be tailored by varying the size of the porous particles, particleshape, pore geometry (including pore size). In general, smaller particlesizes, elongated or irregular particle shapes vs spherical particleshapes given the same particle volume, and larger pore sizes will resultin increased rates of ion release. One may mix different sized particlesand also particles with different pore sizes to tailor releaseproperties to suit both short term and long term release of ions infinal products. Generally the particle size is varied between about 0.5to 20 microns and pore size between 2 nm to 20 mm, with 4 to 15 nm beingmore preferred. These particles also have high surface areas andtypically particles with surface areas greater than about 20 m²/g aredesirable with more than 100 m²/g being preferred.

h. Particle Formation by Grinding

The particles of the compounds of this invention may be formed usingother known methods. One such method of forming the desiredmicroparticles and nanoparticles is by grinding of larger particles in awet media mill. Such grinding is done in the presence of thefunctionalizing agents and an appropriate liquid medium, e.g. water. Wetmedia mills are available from several sources such as NETZSCH FineParticle Technology, LLC., Exton Pa. (e.g., Nanomill Zeta®); CustomMilling and Consulting, Fleetwood, Pa. (e.g., Super Mill Plus); GlenMills Inc, Clifton N.J. (e.g., Dyno® Mill). These mills typicallycomprise chambers in which hard ceramic or metal beads are vigorouslystirred along with the slurries of the powders which result in grindingof the powders down to finer sizes. Typically, the size of the beads isabout 1,000 times larger than the smallest average size to which theparticles are ground to. Generally, the procedure starts using largerbeads and as the particles are pulverized smaller beads are used insubsequent stages. As an example when one starts grinding particleswhich have a starting size in the range of about 1 to 10 microns, a beadsize of 0.3 mm is used, which would result in particles of about 100-400nm in size. In the next stage one may use beads of 0.1 mm in diameterwhich would result in particles ground to about 30-100 nm, and next onewould use 0.05 mm diameter beads which would provide particles in therange of about 15-50 nm. Any particle size may be used that providesantimicrobial properties to the product which incorporates suchparticles, however, particle sizes below about 300 nm are preferred. Theliquid media with ground particles may be directly incorporated inproducts (e.g., in coating formulations, creams, etc.), or these may bedried (in a rotoevap, or by spray drying, etc.) so that the particlesalong with the functionalizing agents are obtained as powders/flakes,etc, where these powder or flake particle sizes are preferably larger(several microns to several millimeters)to minimize possible healthissues of workers, and then they are incorporated in formulationsincluding melt blending with other polymers to form products by molding,extrusion, powder coating, etc.

i. Product-by-Process

Another embodiment of the invention described herein is a compositionhaving antimicrobial activity made according to the process comprisingthe steps of obtaining CuI powder; dissolving the CuI powder in a polarnonaqueous solvent; adding an amount of hydrophilic polymer sufficientto stabilize the CuI in the polar, nonaqueous solvent; removing thesolvent sufficient to dry the stabilized CuI particles whereby apolymer-complexed CO particle powder is formed; dispersing thepolymer-complexed CuI particle powder in an aqueous solution having a pHof from about 1 to about 6 to form CuI particles stabilized in waterwhereby a polymer-complexed CuI particle; and optionally drying saidstabilized CuI particles sufficient to remove the water.

The process is simple, efficient and highly quantitative.

Selection of the CuI powder source is the first step. CuI powder istypically purchased from any of numerous vendors including WakoChemicals, Sigma Aldrich, VWR Scientific, etc. Any grade is acceptable,although a preferred brand and purity is at least 98% pure CuI availablefrom Sigma Aldrich. Dissolution of the CuI is the next step. The CuIpowder was dissolved in a polar nonaqueous solvent such as acetonitrile,although one of ordinary skill will realize that other nonaqueoussolvents will function for this purpose, and come within the scope ofthe invention. CuI dissolves in polar nonaqueous liquids such asacetonitrile, dimethylformamide, etc. It is preferred not to use proticpolar solvents. The next step is adding a polymer to the dissolved CuIsolution. The function of the polymer is to complex with the CuI, sothat when acetonitrile is removed the precipitating particles of CuI areprevented from coming together to form relatively large crystals. Apreferred polymer is polyvinylpyrrolidone, which has dipole-bearingmoieties. PVP effectively stabilizes emulsions, suspensions anddispersions. The polymer is adsorbed in a thin molecular layer on thesurface of the individual colloidal particles to prevent contact betweenthem and thereby overcome the tendency of these particles to form acontinuous phase. Other polymers having dipole-bearing moieties arepolyethylene glycol (PEG), surfactants, polymeric colloids, etc. Thepolymers may be hydrophilic such as PVP, polyacrylamide and PEG,copolymers of vinyl acetate and vinyl pyrrolidone or they may behydrophobic such as several acrylic, methacrylic and polyesters andpolyurethanes. Preferred hydrophobic polymers include acrylics,urethanes, polyesters and epoxies. The ratio of metal halide to polymeris preferably from about 1:0.5 to about 1:100, more preferably 1:1 to1:80, and a most preferred ratio in the case of PVP is about 1:1 to1:65.

The next step is to create nanoparticles of CuI in the presence of thestabilizing agent. In one embodiment acetonitrile is removed using arotoevap, which causes the CuI particles to precipitate out of solutioncomplexed to the functionalizing agent as nanoparticles. This can bedone at room temperature or the temperature can be elevated to hastenthe drying process. The resulting powder can be stored indefinitely(“Step 1 Powder”).

An optional step includes increasing the ratio of particle tofunctionalizing agent. The dry Step 1 Powder comprising CuInanoparticles and the surface modifying polymer is dissolved in water togive a suspension of the nanoparticles. The concentration of CuI in thesuspension is adjusted by varying the powder to water ratio. Adjustingthe pH of the solution at this stage helps further improve the bindingof the polymer to the nanoparticles and helps to break any agglomerateswhich may have formed. The preferred pH range is from about pH 0.5 toabout pH 6. A specific pH value is dependent on the type of surfacefunctionalizing agent, the size of the particles desired, the loading ofthe metal salt relative to the functionalization agent and the medium inwhich this would be dispersed in later. Useful acids to adjust pHinclude organic acids such as acetic acid, or mineral acids such as HCl,H₂SO₄ and HNO₃. The solution is stirred until optical claritystabilized. The typical size of the resulting CuI particles ranges fromabout 4 nm to about 300 nm. Clear aqueous 1.5 solutions typically haveCuI particle sizes below about 10 nm, and with increasing particle sizethey become translucent to turbid. These solutions may also be dried andstored as powders (“Step 2 Powder”), which may be later dispersed intosolutions. The average particle sizes of CuI in Step 2 Powders aretypically smaller than the CuI particle sizes in Step 1 Powders.

The Powder (either from Step 1 or from Step 2) may be made from polymersother than PVP as discussed above. Such powders are mixed in a moltenstate with typical thermoplastic materials, such as nylons, polyesters,acetals, cellulose esters, polycarbonates, fluorinated polymers,acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene (ABS) polymers, and polyolefins using atwin screw extruder. PEG is a preferred material for incorporating suchnanoparticles into nylons, polycarbonates and polyester matrices, astransesterification will cause PEG to react with these materials andform covalent bonds to the polymer matrix. The high shear forces in atwin screw extruder will also help the agglomerated particles todisperse. This is preferably done in two steps. In the first step aconcentrated antimicrobial polymer material is made with a relativelyhigh concentration of antimicrobial metal halide particles of theinvention, typically 1 to 10% by weight. This is usually blended in atwin screw type setup to provide a very intimate mixing. This is calleda “master batch.” This master batch can then be blended with resins sothat the concentration of the antimicrobial material drops by a factorof about 5 to 25, and these blends are then used to make polymericproducts by molding, extrusion, etc, where typically the concentrationof the antimicrobial material in the final product is generally lessthan 2%, preferably less than 1%. The master batch can be blended withthe neat resin on the processing equipment such as injection molding orthe extrusion machine which makes the final product.

j. Theory

While not wanting to be bound by a particular theory regarding theorigin of the surprising antimicrobial effectiveness of the novelcompositions of the present invention, it is currently believed that thecompositions of the invention (or ions released therefrom) are attractedto the surfaces of target pathogens. Once attached to the surfaces ofthe pathogens, the active oligodynamic species (generally ions such asmetal cations but also included are the anions such as iodide) aretransferred from the particles onto and/or into the pathogens. In someembodiments, the interaction between the functionalized particles andthe pathogens may be sufficiently strong that the particles becomeembedded in the outer membrane of the pathogen, which can have adeleterious effect on membrane function as certain transport proteinsmay be inactivated by the cations. In other embodiments, particularlywhen the particles are very small (as less than 10 nm in size), thefunctionalized particles can be transported across the outer membrane ofthe pathogen and become internalized. Under these conditions, theoligodynamic species can directly transfer from the particles into thepathogen, bind to organelles, RNA, DNA etc. thereby hindering normalcellular processes. In the case of bacteria, this would correspond tothe direct deposition of the active oligodynamic species in theperiplasm or cytoplasm of the bacteria. This theory of the operativemechanism of the invention is just that, and is one of many that couldexplain the underlying efficacy.

4. Uses of the Compositions

The embodiments of the present invention have utility in a wide range ofantimicrobial applications. Some of these applications are set forth inTable 1 below. Besides their direct use as antimicrobial compounds,other embodiments include several ways in which the functionalizedparticles can be incorporated into other materials to obtain novel anduseful objects.

TABLE 1 Representative Applications of Functionalized AntimicrobialNanoparticles No. Application 1. Antimicrobial agents, administeredeither orally or via IV infusion 2. Coatings on implants 3. Constituentsof implants 4. Sutures and medical devices 5. Pacemaker housings andleads 6. Filters for water supplies and air 7. Clothing for medicalpersonnel, including nurses and surgeons 8. Coatings on or directincorporation in components of ventilators, air ducts, cooling coils andradiators (for use in buildings and transportation) 9. Masks 10. Medicaland surgical gloves 11. Textiles including bedding towels, undergarmentsand socks 12. Upholstery, carpets and other textiles, wherein theparticles are incorporated into the fibers 13. Coatings on furniture forpublic use, as in hospitals, doctors' offices and restaurants 14. Wallcoatings in buildings, including public buildings such as hospitals,doctors' offices, schools, restaurants and hotels 15. Coatings orcompositions for use in transportation, such as ships, planes, buses,trains and taxis, where the antimicrobial compositions and coatings maybe used for/applied to walls, floors, appliances, bathroom surfaces,handles, knobs, tables and seating 16. Coatings on and constituents ofshopping bags 17. Coatings on school desks 18. Coatings on plasticcontainers and trays 19. Coatings on leather, purses, wallets and shoes20. Coatings on shower heads 21. Self-disinfecting cloths 22. Coatingson bathroom door knobs, handles, sinks and toilet seats 23. Coatings onbottles containing medical or ophthalmic solutions 24. Coatings on ordirect incorporation in keyboards, switches, knobs, handles, steeringwheels, remote controls, of automobiles, cell phones and other portableelectronics 25. Coatings on toys, books and other articles for children26. Coatings on gambling chips, gaming machines, dice, etc. 27. Topicalcreams for medical use including use on wounds, cuts, burns, skin andnail infections 28. Shampoos for treating chronic scalp infections 29.Coatings on handles of shopping carts 30. Coatings on cribs andbassinettes 31. Bottle coatings for infant's bottles 32. Coatings ordirect incorporation in personal items such as toothbrushes, combs andhair brushes 33. Coatings on currency, including paper, tissue paper,plastic and metal 34. Coatings or direct incorporation in sporting goodssuch as tennis rackets, gold clubs, gold balls and fishing rods 35.Adhesives used in bandages 36. Anti-odor formulations, includingapplications for personal hygiene such as deodorants 37. Objects andcoatings to prevent formation of biofilms, particularly in marineapplications 38. Dental coatings, sealants, fillings, crowns, bridgesand implants 39. Molded and extruded products, including wastecontainers, devices, tubing, films, bags, liners and foam products.

a. Incorporation Methods

Embodiments of the invention are directed to compositions havingantimicrobial activity made according to the following processcomprising the steps of (a) forming stabilized copper iodidenanoparticles having an average size between 1000 nm and 4 nm; (b)dispersing the stabilized copper iodide nanoparticles in a suspendingmedium; (c) adding a quantity of the dispersed copper iodidenanoparticles to a manufacturing precursor; and (d) forming an articleof manufacture at least partially from the manufacturing precursorwhereby copper iodide nanoparticles are dispersed throughout thearticle. The manufacturing precursor may comprise a polymeric material.In further embodiments incorporation of the nanoparticles of theinvention in molded and extruded thermoplastic products is typicallyachieved by first making master batches, wherein the antimicrobialcompound (as particles or infused in porous matrices) are present inrelatively high concentrations in polymeric matrices (preferably 1 to10% of metal by weight). The master batches are then compounded with thepolymer (resin) to make the molded or extruded product. This istypically done by first making the desired particles which arefunctionalized by polymers which are expected to have compatibility withthe resins. These functionalized particles are formed in a dry state byremoving water or any other solvents which are used and mixing them withthe desired resins, usually on a mill or a twin screw extruder so thatthese mix intimately to have a high concentration of the antimicrobialcompound. This is called a “master batch.” This master batch istypically produced by companies which specialize in homogenouslyblending the two together and deliver their products as pulverizedpowders or pellets. These master batches are then used as additives totheir resins by processors who use molding and/or extrusion operationsto make these products. Such plastic processing operations includeinjection molding, injection blow molding, reaction injection molding,blown film processing, blow molding, rotational molding, calendaring,melt casting, thermoforming, rotational molding and multishot molding,etc. Starting with the antimicrobial concentration in a master batch aslisted above, the processors use a typical ratio of resin to masterbatch material of 10:1 or so, which would then provide end products withantimicrobial concentrations of from about 0.1 to 1% (based on metallicconcentration). Another important aspect should be considered whenpreparing the nanosized antimicrobial materials to be incorporated indownstream processing (e.g. at the facility of the masterbatchproducer). To protect the health and safety of the workers employed atthe antimicrobial material producing facility or other downstreamprocessor, the possibility of getting the nanoparticles airborne shouldbe minimized. One method that is commonly employed includes making theparticle size of the dried powders (nanoparticles surface functionalizedby polymers) relatively large (several microns to several millimeters)in comparison to the nanoparticles themselves. These dry powders arethen easily handled and transported for downstream operators to use inpaints, resins and other liquid carriers to create coatings of objectsincorporating the functionalized nanoparticles.

Antimicrobial compositions of this invention may be added to extruded ormolded polymer products homogeneously or to these objects as coatings ora layer using extrusion and molding operations. In the later case,operations such as co-extrusion, in-mold decoration, in-mold coating,multi-shot molding, etc are used where the antimicrobial additive isonly present in that resin/material which forms the skin of the productas a result of these operations.

The functionalized microparticles and nanoparticles of the presentinvention may also be used by combining them with monomeric compositionsor with solutions of pre-formed polymers, where the resulting materialscontaining the functionalized particles may be used to create two- andthree-dimensional objects, adhesives and coatings, where thecompositions are polymerized or crosslinked or densified afterprocessing/setting the compositions into their final form. Coatings mayalso be deposited from solutions and aqueous polymeric emulsionscontaining the functionalized particles, where the formulationspreferably comprise one or more film-forming polymers, or the particlesmay be employed in powder-coat formulations which are then processedinto coatings.

When used in coatings and molded and other three dimensional products,these particles may scatter light, depending on their concentration,size and refractive index relative to the matrix. This can give rise toopacity or haze with increasing product thickness, particularly largerparticles, higher particulate concentrations and larger differences inthe refractive index (RI) of the particles and the matrix (e.g., seepublished US patent application 20100291374). In many applications thisis not an issue, as the products have other opacifiers such as titaniumdioxide. In other cases, e.g., for optical and ophthalmic use such ascontact lenses, clarity is important, and one may optionally use thesematerials provided some of the parameters are controlled. Usually, thepolymeric matrices of most common polymers have an RI in the range of1.4 to 1.6. Silicones will be closer to 1.4, acrylics closer to 1.5 andpolycarbonate closer to 1.6. The RI of copper iodide is 2.35, as anexample if used as an antimicrobial additive. For high clarity (or lowhaze, typically less than 2% in the visible wavelengths as measured byASTM test method D1003), it is preferred that the size of CuI particlesis about less than 120 nm, volume loading less than 2% and productthickness less than 0.1 mm. CuBr and CuCl have lower refractive index ascompared to CuI and will allow further relaxation of these numbers(meaning bigger particle sizes, higher volume loading and thickerproducts with high clarity).

Another embodiment of a product formed from such antimicrobialcompositions are topical creams for both pharmaceutical and consumerproduct use. As an example, functionalized nanoparticles may be addedto/formulated with Carbopol® polymers from Lubrizol to result in gelsand creams which may be used as antimicrobial creams for treatment ofinfections, fungus, wounds, acne, burns, etc. Although any concentrationof the functionalized nanoparticles may be used which provides effectivetreatment, a useful range of metal concentration (from thenanoparticles) in the finished product is 10 to 50,000 ppm. The preciseconcentration of any particular topical treatment can be assessed bytesting the cream in any of the assays for antimicrobial effectpresented herein, or known to one of ordinary skill.

The functionalized nanoparticles may also be formulated in petroleumjelly to provide superior water resistance. One may use additionalsurfactants and compatibilizers so that while the hydrophobic petroleumjelly protects the application area, it is also able to release theantimicrobial material to the underlying areas which may be hydrophilic.One of ordinary skill in the pharmaceutical art of compounding will knowhow to create antimicrobially active creams and ointments in combinationwith the functionalized metal halide powders of the present invention.

The antimicrobial materials of this invention may be used as an additiveto other drug formulations including other antibiotic creams orformulations for infection control or related purposes. Theantimicrobial materials of this invention may be added in a burn cream,which while assisting the repair of burned tissue will also keep anyinfection away, or it may be mixed with other antibiotics, infectionreducing/prevention analgesic materials such as bacitracin, neomycin,polymyxin, silver sulfadiazine, selenium sulfide, zinc pyrithione andparamoxine, Many of these compositions listed above are available incommercial products, and the antimicrobial materials of this inventioncan be added to them to result in a concentration that is mosteffective. A preferred range of addition of the inventive antimicrobialmaterials herein is about 0.001 to 5% (based on the weight of the metalconcentration of active ingredients) in the final product. For thoseformulations where solutions (or suspensions) are used as end products,a preferred range of the inventive antimicrobial material is below 1% byweight.

Imparting a thin coating to a surface allows one to obtain antimicrobialproperties on a surface without infusing the potentially expensivematerials into the bulk of the object. Powder coatings with theantimicrobial additives of this invention can be formed on metals,ceramics and other polymers (thermoplastics and thermosets). Thetechnology for powder coating of materials is well established (e.g.,see “A Guide to High Performance Powder Coating” by Bob Utec, Society ofManufacturing Engineers, Dearborn, Mich. (2002).) The matrices forpowder coats are typically epoxies for indoor use where high chemicalresistance is required and acrylics and polyesters includingepoxy-polyester hybrids for outdoor use where superior UV resistance isneeded. In typical powder coating operations, the object to be coated issuspended in a fluidized bed or subject to an electrostatic spray sothat particles flowing past this object may stick on its surface (wherethe particles contact and melt due to higher surface temperature or theparticles are attracted due to the static attraction and melted later).Typically, the powders melt and cure forming a coating. The coatingprocessing temperatures are typically in the range of about 80 to 200°C. In the past, mainly metals were coated with polymeric powders.Recently, however, increasing use is being made of polyurethane powdersfor coating objects made of thermoset polymers and acrylic powders forcoating thermoplastics objects (including acrylics which are cured usingUV after the coating is deposited).

The antimicrobial additives of the current invention can be added topowder resins which are used for powder coatings. There are several waysto achieve this. In one method, the resin powders may be treated withsolutions comprising the nanoparticles, and then the solvent is removedfrom the mixtures. These solvents may be solvents or non-solvents forthe powders. In the former case, the powders may have to be pulverizedagain, and in the latter case the antimicrobial material forms a coataround the powders.

In another embodiment, the antimicrobial particles are formed as drypowders using surface modification polymers which are compatible withthe resin powders. The two, i.e., powders with antimicrobial particlesand resin powders are mixed (dry blending), and then subsequently themixture is melt blended in an extruder and then the extrudate ispulverized into a resin powder with antimicrobial material for coating.

Another embodiment of the functionalized metal halide particles isdirected to an antimicrobial composition comprising a povidone-iodinesolution and at least one type of inorganic metal halide salt particle,the particle having an average size of from about 1000 nm to about 4 nm.A further embodiment of the povidone-iodine solution is wherein the atleast one type of inorganic metal halide salt particle is selected fromthe group consisting of copper halide and silver halide, and a furtherembodiment comprises halides selected from the group consisting ofiodide, chloride and bromide. The povidone-iodine compositions of thepresent invention may also be used to treat animals or humans to treatinfected topical areas. As one example aqueous topical solutions of PVPand iodine (where iodine is about 8 to 12% by weight of PVP) arecommonly used as disinfectants for wounds and for disinfecting skinprior to surgery. BETADINE® is a commercially available PVP-iodinesolution. Povidone-iodine (PVP-I) is a stable chemical complex ofpolyvinylpyrrolidone (aka povidone, PVP) and elemental iodine. Itcontains from 9.0% to 12.0% available iodine, calculated on a dry basis.Some methods of making PVP-I are found in U.S. Pat. No. 2,706,701(Beller et al.), U.S. Pat. No. 2,739,922 (Shelanski) U.S. Pat. No.2,900,305 (Siggia) and U.S. Pat. No. 4,402,937 (Denzinger et al.) allincorporated herein by reference. 10% solutions in water are commonlyused as a topical antiseptic. One may add the functionalized particlesof metals and metal halides of the present invention to such PVP-iodinesolutions to obtain new disinfectant solutions with notably enhanceddisinfecting ability. Compositions of metal halide particles added tosuch PVP-I solutions also come within the scope of the currentinvention. Such a metal halide-enhanced PVP-I solution would beformulated having about 88-99% PVP, 2 to 10% Iodine, and 0.005-10% metalhalide particles on a wt/wt basis. These weight proportions are relativeto these three components excluding water and other solvents.

The compositions of the present invention can also contain anycombination of additional medicinal compounds. Such medicinal compoundsinclude, but are not limited to, antimicrobials, antibiotics, antifungalagents, antiviral agents, anti thrombogenic agents, anesthetics,anti-inflammatory agents, analgesics, anticancer agents, vasodilationsubstances, wound healing agents, angiogenic agents, angiostatic agents,immune boosting agents, growth factors, and other biological agents.Suitable antimicrobial agents include, but are not limited to, biguanidecompounds, such as chlorhexidine and its salts; triclosan; penicillins;tetracyclines; aminoglycosides, such as gentamicin and Tobramycin™;polymyxins; rifampicins; bacitracins; erythromycins; vancomycins;neomycins; chloramphenicols; miconazole; quinolones, such as oxolinicacid, norfloxacin, nalidixic acid, pefloxacin, enoxacin, andciprofloxacin; sulfonamides; nonoxynol 9; fusidic acid; cephalosporins;and combinations of such compounds and similar compounds. The additionalantimicrobial compounds provide for enhanced antimicrobial activity.Some of these may be treat humans or animals as a whole (e.g., by oraladministration, injection, etc).

Other embodiments of the present invention comprise medical devices thatare rendered antimicrobial using methods comprising contacting thesurfaces of the devices with the nanoparticle compositions of theinvention. Medical devices, without limitation, include catheters(venous, urinary, Foley or pain management or variations thereof),stents, abdominal plugs, cotton gauzes, fibrous wound dressings (sheetand rope made of alginates, CMC or mixtures thereof, crosslinked oruncrosslinked cellulose), collagen or protein matrices, hemostaticmaterials, adhesive films, contact lenses, lens cases, bandages,sutures, hernia meshes, mesh based wound coverings, ostomy and otherwound products, breast implants, hydrogels, creams, lotions, gels (waterbased or oil based), emulsions, liposomes, ointments, adhesives, porousinorganic supports such as silica or titania and those described in U.S.Pat. No. 4,906,466, the patent incorporated herein in its entirety byreference, chitosan or chitin powders, metal based orthopedic implants,metal screws and plates etc.

Also contemplated by the present invention are antimicrobial fabrics,such as those based on synthetic fibers, e.g., nylon, acrylics,urethane, polyesters, polyolefins, rayon, acetate; natural fibermaterials (silk, rayon, wool, cotton, jute, hemp or bamboo) or blends ofany of these fibers. The fibers or yarns may be impregnated with thefunctionalized metal salt nanoparticle formulations or for syntheticfibers the functionalized nanoparticles may be incorporated into resinmelts/solutions that are used to form (extruded or spun) these fibers.In an alternative embodiment, the fabrics may be provided with coatingscontaining the antimicrobial compositions of the present invention.Devices, medical including dental and veterinary products andnon-medical, made of silicone, polyurethanes, polyamides, acrylates,ceramics etc., and other thermoplastic materials used in the medicaldevice industry and impregnated with functionalized nanoparticles usingliquid compositions of the present invention are encompassed by thepresent invention. Various coating compositions for different polymeric,ceramic or metal surfaces that can be prepared from liquid compositionsare also contemplated by the present invention, as are coatingcompositions which are impregnated with functionalized nanoparticlesafter their deposition. The coating compositions deposited from liquidsolutions can be hardened by solvent loss or cured by thermal orradiation exposure or by incorporation of polymerization (e.g.,cross-linking) agents in the coating formulations.

Antimicrobial medical and non-medical devices of the present inventioncan be made by treating the devices with antimicrobial functionalizedmetal salt compositions of the present invention by different methods.One disclosed method of the present invention comprises the steps ofmaking the compositions in a dry particulate form that may beredispersed in an aqueous or nonaqueous carrier liquid, then contactingthe compositions and the device surfaces for a sufficient period of timeto allow accumulation of nanoparticles and then rinsing the excess ofsaid composition away and drying the device. A modification of thedisclosed method may involve drying or curing the surface of materialfirst and then rinsing off the surface to remove excess. The method ofcontact may be dipping the device in the compositions or spraying thecompositions on the device or coating blends of polymer solution and thecompositions.

In other cases, the functionalized antimicrobial nanoparticles or porousparticles containing antimicrobial compounds may be incorporated inpolymer-based coating solutions from which antimicrobial coatings aredeposited by end users. For example, the compositions of the inventionmay be applied to marine surfaces as a bactericidal agent. As anotherexample, the compositions of the invention may be incorporated inpolyurethane coating solutions and applied to furniture or flooring bythe end users.

In another aspect, the present invention provides methods andcompositions for applying antifouling coatings to an article such as aboat hull, aquaculture net, or other surface in constant contact with amarine environment. Materials that are immersed for long periods of timein fresh or marine water are commonly fouled by the growth ofmicroscopic and macroscopic organisms. The accumulation of theseorganisms is unsightly and in many instances interferes with function.The natural process of accumulated growth is often referred to asfouling of the surface. There are a number of agents that may be appliedto the surfaces to inhibit this growth, and may be combined with thematerials of this invention. These agents are known in the art asanti-fouling agents. While many of these agents are highly effective,some of them may betoxic that often leech from the surface of thearticle and accumulate in the local environment. In one embodiment, thepresent invention provides a composition for treating a marine surfacecomprising a particle having at least one inorganic copper salt, and atleast one functionalizing agent in contact with the particle, thefunctionalizing agent stabilizing the particle in suspension such thatan amount of ions are released into the environment of a microbesufficient to prevent its proliferation.

In many of these examples the materials of this invention may becombined with other known antimicrobial materials used for thatparticular application.

The following examples are illustrations of the embodiments of theinventions discussed herein, and should not be applied so as to limitthe appended claims in any manner.

EXAMPLES

List of Chemicals Used:

-   1. Silver nitrate>99%, Sigma-Aldrich (Milwaukee, Wis.) #S6506,    169.87 g/mol-   2. Copper(I) Bromide>98% (Sigma Aldrich #61163)-   3. Copper(II) acetate monohydrate≧98%, Sigma-Aldrich #217557, 199.65    g/mol-   4. Sodium borohydride≧98.0%, Sigma-Aldrich #452882, 37.83 g/mol-   5. Sodium hydroxide≧97.0%, Sigma-Aldrich #221465, 40 g/mol-   6. Mereaptosuccinic acid (Thiomalic acid)≧99.0%, Sigma-Aldrich    #88460, 150.15 g/mol, HOOCCH(SH)CH₂COOH-   7. N-(2-Mercaptopropionyl)glycine (Thioglycine), Sigma-Aldrich    #M6635, 163.19 g/mol, CH₃CH(SH)CONHCH₂COOH-   8. Thioglycerol 95%, TCI America (Portland, Oreg.) #T0905, 108.16    g/mol, HSCH₂CH(OH)CH₂OH-   9. Lipoic acid≧98.0% (Thioctic acid), Sigma-Aldrich #62320, 206.33    g/mol-   10. Thiolactic acid 95%, Sigma-Aldrich T31003, 106.14 g/mol,    CH₃CH(SH)COOH-   11. (3-Mercaptopropyl)trimethoxysilane 95% (Thiosilane),    Sigma-Aldrich #175617, 196.34 g/mol-   12. 2-Aminoethanethiol≧95% (Aminothiol), TCI America #77.15 g/mol-   13. Aspartic acid≧99%, Sigma-Aldrich #A9006, 133.10 g/mol-   14. Leucine≧99%, Sigma-Aldrich #L7875, 131.17 g/mol,    CH₃)₂CHCH₂CH(NH₂)CO₂H-   15. Lysine≧97%, TCI America #L0129, 146.19-   16. Polyvinylpyrrolidone Mw=1,300,000 (PVP-1300K), Sigma-Aldrich    #437190-   17. Polyvinylpyrrolidone Mw=10,000 (PVP-10K), Sigma-Aldrich #PVP10-   18. Polyvinylpyrrolidone, Luvitec K17 (BASF, Germany)-   19. Copolymer Vinyl acetate-Vinyl pyrrolidone, Luvitec VA64 (BASF,    Germany)-   20. Polyethyelene glycol (PEG, MW 10,000) (Sigma-Aldrich 309028)-   21. Hydrobromic acid 48%, Sigma-Aldrich #268003, 80.91 g/mol-   22. Hydrochloric acid 36.5%, EMD Chemicals (Bridgetown, N.J.)    #HX0603-75, 36.46 g/mol-   23. Sodium iodide≧99.0%, Sigma-Aldrich #S8379, 149.89 g/mol-   24. Potassium bromide≧99%, Sigma-Aldrich #22,186-4, 119 g/mol-   25. Sodium chloride≧99.5%, Fluka (Milwaukee, Wis.) #71379, 58.44    g/mol-   26. Acetonitrile anhydrous 99.8% (Sigma-Aldrich 271004)-   27. Copper Iodide 98% (particle size 2 to 3 μm), 99.5% (particle    size 1 to 2 μm)and 99.999% (particle size 1-2 μm)(Sigma Aldrich    205540; 3140 and 215554 respectively)-   28. AgI nanoparticles, 25 nm (0.7% by weight) in PVP matrix    (Chempilots a/s, Denmark-   29. Copper metal, Sigma Aldrich Cat. #326453

5. Processes of Making the Functionalized Metal Salt Nanoparticles

The following methods were used in synthesizing the functionalizednanoparticles. The procedures below are divided into two sets, ProcedureSet 1 and Procedure Set 2. The first set comprises procedures for makingnanoparticles of various metal halides and silver metal; and theantimicrobial results from these are discussed in Tables 2 through 9.

The following precursor solutions were made which were used forsynthesizing particles for both sets:

Solution A: 4% AgNO₃ Solution:

0.945 g Silver nitrate (Sigma-Aldrich #S6506) was dissolved in 14.055 gwater (deionized). (This solution theoretically contains 4% by weightmetallic silver.)

Solution B: 0.7% NaBH₄-Solution:

0.07 g Sodium borohydride (Aldrich #452882) was dissolved in 9.93 gwater. This solution was always prepared freshly just before its use.

Solution C: 10% Aspartic Acid Solution:

0.296 g NaOH pellets (7.4 mmol) was dissolved in 8.6 g water, 0.988 gAspartic acid (7.4 mmol) (Sigma #A9006) added into it and then stirreduntil a clear solution was obtained.

Solution D: 10% Thioglycine-Solution(TGN)

0.0245 g NaOH pellets (0.613 mmol) was dissolved in 0.875 g water, 0.1 gN-(2-Mercaptopropionyl)glycine (0.613 mmol) (Thioglycine Sigma #M6635)added into it and then stirred until a clear solution was obtained.

Solution E: 10% Thiomalic Acid (TMAN) Solution:

0.134 g NaOH pellets (3.35 mmol) was dissolved in 2.12 g water, 0.25 gMercaptosuccinic acid (3.35 mmol) (Thiomalic acid, Aldrich #88460) addedinto it and then stirred until a clear solution was obtained.

Solution F: 10% Thioctic Acid Solution(TOA):

0.0193 g NaOH pellets (0.483 mmol) was dissolved in 0.88 g water, 0.1 gLipoic acid (0.483 mmol) (Thioctic acid, Sigma #M6635) added into it andthen stirred.

Solution G: Copper Solution

Dissolve 0.0213 g CuBr in 0.048 g HBr 48%, diluting with 16 g water and,finally stirring until clear solution

Solution H: 10% PVP-1300K or 10K-Solution:

1 g Polyvinylpyrrolidone, mol. wt.=1,300,000 or 10,000 was dissolved in9 g water.

Procedure Set 1 (Examples 1-20) Synthesis of Functionalized MetallicSilver Nanoparticles Example 1 Synthesis and Functionalization of Ag^(o)Particles with Thiomalic Acid at Ag/SH=1/0.25 and Ag/Aspartic=1/5

1 g Solution A (0.371 mmol) was diluted with 2.39 g water. 2.47 g ofSolution C (1.855 mmol) and 3-5 mins later 0.139 g Solution E (0.0926mmol) were dropped under stirring into the diluted solution. Afterstirring further for 5 mins, 2 g Solution B (0.37 mmol) were droppedslowly into it under stirring. The final concentration of silver basedon the calculation of metallic silver is 0.5% w/w.

Example 2a Synthesis and Functionalization of Ag^(o) Particles withThioglycine at Ag/SH=1/0.25 and Ag/Aspartic=1/5

1 g Solution A (0.371 mmol) was diluted with 2.368 g water. 2.47 gSolution C (1.855 mmol) and 3-5 mins later 0.151 g Solution D (0.0925mmol) were dropped under stirring into the diluted solution. Afterstirring further for 5 mins, 2 g Solution B (0.37 mmol) were droppedslowly into it under stirring. The final concentration of silver basedon the calculation of metallic silver is 0.5% w/w.

Example 2b Synthesis and Functionalization of Ag^(o) Particles withThioglycine at Ag/SH=1/0.25 and Ag/Aspartic=1/2

1 g Solution A (0.371 mmol) was diluted with 2.368 g water. 0.99 gSolution C and 3-5 mins later 0.151 g Solution D (0.0925 mmol) weredropped under stirring into the diluted solution. After stirring furtherfor 5 mins, 2 g Solution B (0.37 mmol) were dropped slowly into it understirring. The final concentration of silver based on the calculation ofmetallic silver is 0.5% w/w.

Example 3 Synthesis and Functionalization of Ag^(o) Particles with PVP

0.1366 g silver nitrate was dissolved in 9.825 g water and then 2.168 gSolution H (PVP MW 10,000) in water added into it. Finally, 5.202 g offreshly prepared 0.25% w/w NaBH₄ in water was dropped slowly into thesilver nitrate solution and kept stirring overnight to obtain silverparticles. The final concentration of silver based on the calculation ofmetallic silver is 0.5% w/w.

Example 4 Synthesis and Functionalization of Ag^(o) Particles with PVPand Thioglycine

0.1366 g silver nitrate was dissolved in 8.25 g water and then 2.168 gof Solution H (PVP MW 10,000) in water added into it. Finally, 5.202 gof freshly prepared 0.25% w/w NaBH₄ in water was dropped slowly into thesilver nitrate solution and kept stirring overnight to obtain silverparticles. The final concentration of silver based on the calculation ofmetallic silver is 0.55% w/w. 3.5 g of the silver sol produced in thisway was diluted with 2.4 g of water and 0.146 g of Solution D, and themixture was stirred for 2 hours to obtain silver particles modified bothwith PVP and thioglycine.

Example 5 Synthesis and Functionalization of AgBr Nanoparticles with PVP

0.2079 g silver nitrate was dissolved in 12.785 g water and then 3.30 gSolution H added into it. Finally a solution of 0.146 g potassiumbromide in 5.20 g water was slowly dropped under stirring and keptstirring overnight to allow the formation of particles. The finalconcentration of silver based on the calculation of metallic silver is0.61% w/w.

Example 6 Synthesis and Functionalization of AgBr Nanoparticles withThiomalic Acid and Aspartic Acid at Ag/SH=1/0.25 and Ag/Aspartic=1/2

1 g Solution A (0.371 mmol) was diluted with 4.176 g water. 0.99 gSolution C (0.744 mmol) and 3-5 mins later 0.139 g Solution E (0.0925mmol) were dropped under stirring into the diluted solution. Afterstirring further for 5 mins, the solution of 0.047 g HBr 48% (0.279mmol) (Aldrich #268003) diluted in 2 g water was dropped slowly into itunder stirring. The final concentration of silver based on thecalculation of metallic silver is 0.5% w/w.

Example 7 Synthesis and Functionalization of AgCl Nanoparticles withThiomalic and Aspartic Acid at Ag/SH-1/0.25 and Ag/Aspartic-1/2

1 g Solution A (0.371 mmol) was diluted with 3.843 g water. 0.99 gSolution C (0.744 mmol) and 3-5 mins later 0.139 g Solution E (0.0925mmol) were dropped under stirring into the diluted solution. Afterstirring further for 5 mins, the solution of 0.028 g HCl 36.5% (0.280mmol) (EMD Chem. # HX0603-75) diluted in 2 g water was dropped slowlyinto it under stirring. The final concentration of silver based on thecalculation of metallic silver is 0.5% w/w.

Example 8 Synthesis and Functionalization of AgI Nanoparticles withThioglycine at Ag/SH=1/0.25

1 g Solution A (0.371 mmol) was diluted with 4.804 g water. 0.151 gSolution D (0.0925 mmol) was dropped under stirring into the dilutedsolution. After stirring further for 5 mins, the solution of 0.042 gsodium iodide (Sigma-Aldrich # S8379) diluted in 2 g water was droppedslowly into it under stirring. The final concentration of silver basedon the calculation of metallic silver is 0.5% w/w.

Example 9 Synthesis and Functionalization of AgBr Nanoparticles withThioglycine and Aspartic Acid at Ag/SH=1/0.25 and Ag/Aspartic=1/2

1 g Solution A (0.371 mmol) was diluted with 3.826 g water. 0.99 gSolution C (0.744 mmol) and 3-5 mins later 0.151 g Solution D (0.0925mmol) were dropped under stirring into the diluted solution. Afterstirring further for 5 mins, the solution of 0.033 g potassium bromide(0.277 mmol) (Aldrich #22, 186-4) dissolved in 2 g water was droppedslowly into it under stirring. The final concentration of silver basedon the calculation of metallic silver is 0.5% w/w. The particle size wasabout 25 nm.

Example 10 Synthesis and Functionalization of AgBr Nanoparticles withThioglycine and Aspartic Acid at Ag/SH=1/0.25 and Ag/Aspartic=1/5

Same procedure as Example 9, except that the amount of Solution C was2.47 g (1.855 mol). In this case, the particle size was in the range of10 to 15 nm.

Example 11 Synthesis and Functionalization of AgI Nanoparticles with 5Mol-% CuBr and Thioglycine at Ag/SH=1/0.5 and Ag/Aspartic=1/2

1 g Solution A (0.371 mmol) was diluted with 1.675 g water. 0.99 gSolution C (0.744 mmol) and 3-5 mins later 0.303 g Solution D (0.186mmol) were dropped under stirring into the diluted solution. Afterstirring further for 5 mins, 2.010 g Solution G (0.0356 mmol bromidefrom HBr), was dropped slowly into the solution under stirring. At thefinal step, 0.0225 g sodium iodide (0.15 mmol) dissolved in 2 g waterwas added. The final concentration of silver based on the calculation ofmetallic silver is 0.5% w/w.

Example 12 Synthesis of AgBr or AgCl) Nanoparticles with Thioglycerol atAg/SH=1/0.10 and Ag/PVP=1/2.5 w/w

For preparation of AgBr nanoparticles, 1 g Solution A (0.371 mmol) wasdiluted with 3.88 g water. 1 g of Solution H (PVP-1300K) and 2-3 minslater 0.080 g 5% w/w aqueous solution of thioglycerol (0.037 mmol) (TCIAmerica #T0905) were dropped under stirring into the diluted solution.In 2-3 mins, the solution of 0.0397 g potassium bromide (0.334 mmol)(Aldrich #22, 186-4) for AgCl) diluted in 2 g water was dropped slowlyinto it under stirring. The final concentration of silver based on thecalculation of metallic silver is 0.5% w/w.

For preparation of AgCl nanoparticles the same procedure was used, butinstead of 3.88 g of water 3.90 g of water was used and instead of0.0397 g of potassium bromide, 0.0195 g of sodium chloride (Fluka#71379) was used.

Example 13 Synthesis of AgBr or AgCl Nanoparticles with Thioglycine atAg/SH=1/0.5 and Ag/PVP=1/2.5 w/w

a. production of silver bromide nanoparticles: 3.30 g Solution A werediluted with 12.056 g water. 3.30 g 10% PVP-10K-solution and thesolution of 0.1426 g potassium bromide and 5.2 g water were respectivelydropped slowly, and the nanoparticle suspension was stirred overnight.

b. surface modification: 0.204 g water and 0.146 g 10%Thioglycine-solution were dropped into 3.5 g portion of the synthesizedsilver halide nanoparticles above, and then stirred for, at least, sixhours. The final concentration of silver based on the calculation ofmetallic silver is 0.5% w/w.

For preparation of AgCl nanoparticles the same procedure was used asabove but instead of 12.056 g of water 12.128 g of water was used andinstead of 0.1426 g of potassium bromide, 0.0715 g of sodium chloridewas used.

Example 14 Synthesis of AgBr Nanoparticles with 5 Mol-% CuBr andThioglycine at Ag/SH=1/0.5 and Ag/PVP=1/2.5 w/w

a. production of silver bromide nanoparticles: 3.30 g Solution A (1.224mmol) were diluted with 10.585 g water. 3.30 g 10% PVP-10K-solution and6.815 g copper solution (1.224 mmol bromide from HBr), which was made bydissolving 0.0213 g CuBr in 0.50 g HBr 48%, diluting with 16 g waterand, finally stirring until a clear nanoparticle suspension wasobtained, and the particle suspension was stirred overnight.

b. surface modification: 0.204 g water and 0.146 g Solution D weredropped into 3.5 g portion of the synthesized silver bromidenanoparticle suspension above, and then stirred for at least six hours.The final concentration of silver based on the calculation of metallicsilver is 0.5% w/w.

Example 15 Synthesis of AgI Nanoparticles with 5 Mol-% CuBr andThioglycine at Ag/SH=1/0.5 and Ag/PVP=1/2.5 w/w

a. production of silver iodide nanoparticles: 1.65 g Solution A (0.612mmol) were diluted with 4.452 g water. 1.65 g Solution H. (PVP-10K) and1.674 g copper solution (0.118 mmol bromide from HBr), which was made bydissolving 0.0213 g CuBr in 0.096 g HBr 48%, diluting with 8 g waterand, finally stirring until a clear nanoparticle suspension. At thefinal step, 0.074 g sodium iodide (0.494 mmol) dissolved in 2 g waterwas added and stirred overnight.

b. surface modification: 0.204 g water and 0.146 g Solution D weredropped into 3.5 g portion of the synthesized silver iodide nanoparticlesuspension above, and then stirred for, at least, six hours. The finalconcentration of silver based on the calculation of metallic silver is0.5% w/w.

Example 16 Synthesis of AgI with 5 Mol-% CuBr and Thioglycine atAg/SH=1/0.5 and Ag/PVP=1/2.5 w/w; and Excess of Free Silver Ions

a. production of silver iodide nanoparticles: 1.65 g Solution A (0.612mmol) were diluted with 4.452 g water. 1.65 g Solution H (PVP-10K) and1.674 g copper solution (0.118 mmol bromide from HBr), which was made bydissolving 0.0213 g CuBr in 0.096 g HBr 48%, diluting with 8 g waterand, finally stirring until a clear sol were respectively droppedslowly. At the final step, 0.023 g sodium iodide (0.151 mmol) dissolvedin 2.05 g water was added and stirred overnight. The molar ratio ofsilver nitrate to the sodium iodide ions was such that 56% of the silverwas available as free ions.

b. surface modification: 0.204 g water and 0.146 g Solution D weredropped into 3.5 g portion of the synthesized silver iodide sol above,and then stirred for, at least, six hours. The final concentration ofsilver based on the calculation of metallic silver is 0.5% w/w.

Example 17 Synthesis of CuI Nanoparticles with PVP at Cu/PVP=1/3.3 w/w

2.232 g Solution H (PVP-10K) solution was added into the solution of0.211 g Copper(II) acetate monohydrate (1.057 mmol) dissolved in 6.227 gwater under stirring. Afterwards, 0.3168 g sodium iodide (2.114 mmol)dissolved in 5 g water was dropped slowly into the copper solution andstirred overnight. Next day, the CuI suspension was washed to remove theformed iodine by extracting 7-10 times 2.5-3 ml with diethyl ether. Theremaining ether was separated from the solution by evaporation undervacuum and then water was added to compensate for the loss of weightduring processing. The final concentration of copper based on thecalculation of metallic copper is 0.48% w/w. Reaction:Cu²⁺+2I⁻→CuI₂→CuI_((s))+I₂.

Example 18 CuI Particles with Excess Cu⁺⁺

1.86 g Solution H (PVP-10K) was added into the solution of 0.176 gCopper(II) acetate monohydrate dissolved in 6.448 g water understirring. Afterwards, 0.132 g sodium iodide dissolved in 3 g water wasdropped slowly into the copper solution and stirred overnight. Theremainder of the process was the same as in Example 18, and the finalconcentration of copper in the suspension was 0.48% w/w.

Example 19 Synthesis of Silver Halide Nanoparticles with 5 Mol-% CuI

0.236 g water and 0.114 g CuI as prepared in Method 17 were respectivelydropped into 3.5 g solution of silver halide nanoparticles made by theprocedure in Example 13 under stirring. The final concentration ofsilver based on the calculation of metallic silver is 0.5% w/w

Example 20 Synthesis of Silver Halide Nanoparticles with 5 Mol-% CuI andThioglycine at Ag/SH=0.5

0.09 g water, 0.114 g CuI in Method 17 and, 0.146 g Solution D wererespectively dropped into 3.5 g solution of silver halide nanoparticlesmade by the procedure in Example 13 under stirring. The finalconcentration of silver based on the calculation of metallic silver is0.5% w/w.

Procedure Set 2 (Examples 21-42b) Example 21 Synthesis of SilverNanoparticles Functionalized with Polyvinylpyrrolidone

To a reaction flask fitted with a stir bar and shielded from ambientlight was added 0.1366 g of silver nitrate and 6.7 g of deionized water(DI water). This was stirred to give a clear solution. To this solutionwas added 2.168 g of a 40% w/w PVP, Aldrich, Mol wt 10k). Under rapidstirring 5.202 g of a 0.25% w/w solution of sodium borohydride was addeddrop-wise. This resulted in a very dark gray solution. The weight %silver in the final dispersion was 0.61% with a particle size of 10 to40 nm as measured by dynamic light scattering after converting the datato volume fraction.

Example 22 Synthesis of Silver Bromide Nanoparticles Functionalized withPolyvinylpyrrolidone

To a reaction flask covered to shield for ambient light, fitted with astir bar and placed on an ice bath at 0° C. was added 0.2 g of silvernitrate and 51 g of DI-water. This was stirred for five minutes to forma complete solution. To this was added 3.34 ml of a 10 wt % solution inwater of PVP (Aldrich, Mol. Wt. 10K) and stirred for ten minutes. To asecond reaction vessel fitted with a stir bar and placed on an ice bathwas added 0.157 g of potassium bromide and 21.4 g of DI-water. This wasstirred for ten minutes to form a complete solution. This solution wastransferred to a dropping funnel and added drop-wise (drop rate 0.436ml/min) to the stirred silver nitrate/PVP solution at 0° C. During thisprocess the silver nitrate solution was shielded from ambient light. Themixture was stirred overnight at 0° C. to give a light tan translucentmixture. Weight percent silver in the final mixture was 0.17%. Theaverage particle size was 4 nm (based on volume fraction distribution bydynamic light scattering).

Example 23 Synthesis of Copper Iodide Nanoparticles Modified with PVP

To a 100 ml round bottom flask was added 0.380 g of copper iodide powder(Aldrich, 98%) and 60 mls of anhydrous acetonitrile. The flask wasstoppered and placed under sonication for 10 minutes to form a clearyellow solution. To this solution was added 1.956 g of PVP (Aldrich,Mol, wt. 10K) and sonicated for 10 minutes to form a light greensolution. The solution was placed on a rotovap and the acetonitrileremoved under vacuum at 30° C. for approximately 30 minutes, then thetemperature was increased to 60° C. for 15 minutes. This resulted in abright green solid (a polymeric powder with coarse grain size that canbe ground to any sized powder, preferably in a size much larger thannanosize). This solid was stable and could be redispersed in water toyield nanoparticles. To the flask containing the CuI/PVP solid was addeda stir bar and 100 ml of DI-water to form a white milky opaque mixture.The mixture was shield form ambient light and stirred at 25° C. forthree days this resulted in a translucent light pink stable dispersion.The weight % of Cu in the dispersion was 0.13%. The average particlesize was 4 nm (based on volume fraction distribution by dynamic lightscattering).

Example 24 Synthesis of CuI-PEG Dispersion w/ pH Modifier

A dispersion of CuI surface modified with polyethylene glycol (PEG),prepared in water using nitric acid as a pH modifier. To a reactionflask fitted with a stir bar was added 4.5 g of PEG (MW=10,000), and0.0476 g CuI (99.999%) and 50 ml of acetonitrile. The mixture wasstirred at room temperature for about 30 minutes to give a light greensolution. The reaction flask was placed on a rotovap and the solventremoved at 25° C. to a paste-like consistency. The temperature was thenincreased to 45° C. to complete removal of acetonitrile. This resultedin a yellow powder. This powder was dispersed in 50 ml of DI water and0.05 ml (0.07 g) of concentrated nitric acid was added to form anoff-white mixture. Upon stirring in the dark over night the dispersionbecame clear to give a light yellow dispersion.

Example 25 Synthesis of AgBr:CuI/PVP Dispersion with a Molar RatioAg⁺:Cu⁺ 1:10

a. A copper iodide dispersion was prepared by direct reaction of theelements copper and iodine as follows: To a reaction flask was added8.75 g of polyvinylpyrrolidone PVP (10,000 MW, Sigma Aldrich Cat. #PVP10), 50 ml DI water (18 Mohm-cm) and 0.125 g Cu metal (Sigma. AldrichCat. #326453). The mixture was stirred and cooled to 0° C. on an icebath.

A second solution was prepared where 0.25 g of iodine (≧99.8% SigmaAldrich Cat. #20, 777-2) and 8 ml of toluene (99.8% Sigma Aldrich Cat.#244511) were added to a reaction vessel. The mixture was stirred andcooled to 0° C. on an ice bath.

The iodine/toluene mixture was added slowly, 1 ml/minute, to the copperdispersion at 0° C. This was stirred for 30 minutes at 0° C. and thenallowed to warm to room temperature under stirring. The solution wastransferred to a separator funnel to give a clear toluene phase and darkorange aqueous phase of CuI dispersion. The aqueous phase (CuI) wasseparated from the toluene phase and stored shielded from light.

b. A 1:10 molar ratio of Ag⁺:Cu⁺ was prepared by mixing 1.5 g of AgBrdispersion prepared in Example #27 and 14.8905 g of CuI aqueousdispersion as described above. This resulted in a transparent dispersionyellow/brown dispersion.

Example 26 Preparation of Ag/PVP Dispersion

To a round bottom flask fitted with a condenser was added 50 ml of DIwater (18 Mohm-cm) and 20 g of PVP (10,000 MW, Sigma Aldrich Cat.#PVP10). The mixture was stirred at room temperature to form a clearyellow solution. To this solution was added 0.04926 g of silver nitrate(≧99.0% ACS reagent Sigma Aldrich Cat. #209139) and the solution heatedto 70° C. for 7 hours while stirring. During this time the reaction wasfollowed by PVP absorption with the formation of the Plasmon peak at 425nm due to the reduction of silver nitrate to silver metal by PVP. Thefinal dispersion of Ag nano-particles was orange/brown in color and wastransparent. Dynamic light scattering on a dilute sample of thedispersion gave a mean particle size of 7 nm.

Example 27 Synthesis of AgBr/PVP Dispersion

A silver bromide dispersion was prepared by dissolving 20 g of PVP(10,000 MW, Sigma Aldrich Cat.# PVP10) in 40 ml of DI water (18Mohm-cm). To this solution while stirring was added 0.0492 g of silvernitrate, (≧99.0% ACS reagent Sigma Aldrich Cat. #209139), resulting in aclear yellow solution. In a separate reaction vessel a reducing solutionwas prepared by dissolving 0.0357 g of potassium bromide (anhydrouspowder 99.95% Sigma Aldrich Cat. #451010), in 10 ml DI water (18Mohm-cm). This KBr solution was added drop wise to the AgNO₃/PVPsolution to form a yellow/orange transparent dispersion of AgBr. Dynamiclight scattering on a dilute sample of the dispersion gave a meanparticle size of 4 nm.

Example 28 Synthesis of CuI/PVP Dispersion

To a reaction flask containing 50 ml of anhydrous acetonitrile, (99.8%Sigma Aldrich Cat. #271004), was added 10 g of PVP (10,000 MW, SigmaAldrich Cat.# PVP10) and stirred to form a light yellow solution. Tothis solution was added 0.0476 g of CuI (98.0% Sigma Aldrich Cat.#205540) and after stirring for 30 minutes this resulted in a clear palegreen solution. Then the bulk of the acetonitrile was removed underreduced pressure at 30° C. to form a viscous paste. The temperature wasthen increased to 60° C. to completely remove the solvent to give a palegreen solid. To this solid was added 50 ml of DI water (18 Mohm-cm) andstirred to give a transparent bright yellow dispersion. Dynamic lightscattering on a dilute sample of the dispersion gave a mean particlesize of 4 nm.

Example 29 Synthesis of Ag+AgBr Dispersion Molar Ratio Ag⁰:Ag⁺=1:5

A 1:5 molar ratio of Ag⁰:Ag⁺ was prepared by mixing 2.0 g of Ag/PVPdispersion prepared in Example 26 and 10.022 g of AgBr/PVP dispersion asprepared in Example 27. This resulted in a transparent dispersionyellow/brown dispersion. Dynamic light scattering on dilute samples ofthe dispersions before mixing gave a mean particle size for Ag of 7 nmand AgBr of 4 nm.

Example 30 Synthesis of Ag:CuI dispersion Molar Ratio Ag⁰:Cu⁺ 1:10

A 1:10 molar ratio of Ag⁰:Cu⁺ was prepared by mixing 1.5 g of Ag/PVPdispersion prepared in Example #26 and 14.8905 g of CuI/PVP dispersionas prepared in Example #28. This resulted in a transparent yellow/browndispersion. Dynamic light scattering on dilute samples of thedispersions before mixing gave a mean particle size for Ag of 7 nm andCuI of 4 nm.

Example 31 Synthesis of AgBr:CuI Dispersion Molar Ratio Ag⁺:Cu⁺ 1:10

A 1:10 molar ratio of Ag⁺:Cu was prepared by mixing 1.5 g of AgBr/PVPdispersion prepared in Example #27 and 14.8905 g of CuI/PVP dispersionas prepared in Example #28. This resulted in a transparent yellow/browndispersion.

Example 32 Synthesis of PVP-BASF-CuCl Dispersion

To a reaction flask containing 50 ml of anhydrous acetonitrile (99.8%Sigma Aldrich Cat. #271004) was added 14 g of PVP (BASF K17) and stirredto form a clear solution. To this solution was added 0.0239 g of CuCl(ACS reagent>99.0% Sigma Aldrich Cat. #307483) and after stirring for 30minutes this resulted in a green/yellow solution. Then the bulk of theacetonitrile was removed under reduced pressure at 30° C. to form aviscous paste. The temperature was then increased to 60° C. tocompletely remove the solvent to give a pale green solid. To this solidwas added 50 ml of DI water (18 Mohm-cm) and stirred to give atransparent bright yellow dispersion.

Example 33 Synthesis of CuI/PVP-BASF+Acetic Acid+HNO₃

To a reaction vessel were added 4.05 g of PVP (BASF K17) and 50 ml ofanhydrous acetonitrile (99.8% Sigma Aldrich. Cat. #271004). This wascapped and left to stir at room temperature to form a clear colorlesssolution. To this solution was added 0.0476 g of CuI (99.999% SigmaAldrich Cat. #215554) and stirred at 25° C. for 30 minutes to form atransparent light yellow solution. The bulk of the acetonitrile wasremoved under reduced pressure at 30° C. to form a viscous paste. Thetemperature was then increased to 60° C. to completely remove thesolvent to give a yellow uniform solid. To this solid was added 50 ml ofDI water (18 Mohm-cm) and stirred to give a cloudy white dispersion.This was left to stir for 3 days in the dark the dispersion remainedcloudy with a light white precipitate. While stirring 0.3 ml of glacialacetic acid (ACS reagent≧99.7% Sigma Aldrich Cat. #320099) was addedimmediately and the dispersion turned a orange/yellow color but wascloudy with a slight precipitate. To this mixture was added 0.05 ml ofconcentrated nitric acid (ACS reagent≧90% Sigma Aldrich Cat. #258121)and the solution cleared up to give a transparent light yellow solution.

Example 34 Synthesis of CuI/VP-VA Copolymer-BASF+HNO₃ Dispersion

To a reaction flask containing 50 ml of anhydrous acetonitrile (99.8%Sigma Aldrich Cat, #271004) was added 6.75 g of the copolymer PV-VA(BASF Luvitec VA 64) and stirred to form a clear solution. To thissolution was added 0.0476 g of CuI (99.999% Sigma Aldrich Cat. #215554)and after stirring for 30 minutes this resulted in a green/yellowsolution. The bulk of the acetonitrile was removed under reducedpressure at 30° C. to form a viscous paste. The temperature was thenincreased to 60° C. to completely remove the solvent to give a yellowuniform solid. To this solid was added 50 ml of DI water (18 Mohm-cm)and stirred to give a cloudy light yellow slurry. Under stirring 0.05 gof concentrated nitric acid (ACS reagent≧90% Sigma Aldrich Cat. #258121)was added to the mixture and it turned a light yellow color and wastransparent.

Example 35 Synthesis of CuI/VP-VA Copolymer-BASF+HNO₃+Sodium SulfiteDispersion

To a reaction flask containing 50 ml of anhydrous acetonitrile (99.8%Sigma Aldrich Cat. #271004) was added 13.5 g of the copolymer PV-VA(BASF Luvitec VA 64) and stirred to form a clear solution. To thissolution was added 0.0952 g of CuI (99.999% Sigma Aldrich Cat. #215554)after stirring for 30 minutes this resulted in a green/yellow solution.Then the bulk of the acetonitrile was removed under reduced pressure at30° C. to form a viscous paste. The temperature was then increased to60° C. to completely remove the solvent to give a yellow uniform solid.To this solid was added 100 ml of DI water (18 Mohm-cm) and stirred togive a cloudy light yellow slurry. While stirring 0.05 g of concentratednitric acid (ACS reagent≧90% Sigma Aldrich Cat. #258121) was added tothe mixture and it turned a light yellow color and was transparent. Tothis CuI nano-dispersion was added 0.0135 g sodium sulfite (>98% SigmaAldrich Cat. # S50505) which was equivalent to a concentration of 0.1 wt% based on total weight of copolymer. This addition had no effect on theappearance of the dispersion.

Example 36a Synthesis of CuI/PVP-BASF+HNO₃

To a round bottom flask fitted with a stir bar were added 4.275 g of PVP(BASF K17) and 50 ml of anhydrous acetonitrile (99.8% Sigma Aldrich Cat.#271004). This was capped and left to stir at room temperature to form aclear colorless solution. To this solution was added 0.225 g of CuI(99.999% Sigma Aldrich Cat. #215554) and stirred at 25° C. for 30minutes to form a transparent light yellow solution. The bulk of theacetonitrile was removed under reduced pressure at 30° C. to form aviscous paste. The temperature was then increased to 60° C. tocompletely remove the solvent to give a yellow uniform solid. To thissolid was added 50 ml of Di water (18 Mohm-cm) and stirred to give acloudy light yellow dispersion. While stirring 0.07 g of concentratednitric acid (ACS reagent≧90% Sigma Aldrich Cat. #258121) was added tothe mixture and it turned colorless and lightly cloudy with noprecipitate. Dynamic light scattering on a diluted sample of thedispersion showed a bimodal distribution for volume fraction analysiswith particles with peaks at diameter of 263 and 471 nm.

In another preparation following the above route, the proportion ofcomponents was changed. The amount of PVP (BASF K17) was 2.25 g in 50 mlacetonitrile. To this was added 0.0476 g of CuI (99,999%). This wasprocessed as before and the dry powder was redispersed in 60 ml DIwater. The solution was milky/pale yellow. After stirring 0.05 ml ofnitric acid was added and stirred for two days. The solution becameclear yellow with no precipitate. The solution remains stable after thisprocess. The particle size was 4 mm.

Example 36b Syntheses of CuI/PVP Particles—Control of Particle SizeUsing Acid

Copper iodide functionalized with PVP was prepared at different particlesizes by controlling the amount of nitric acid in the aqueousdispersion. The dispersions were prepared as described in Example 36awith the exception that the acid was added in the form of an aqueoussolution in which the CuI/PVP powder was dispersed. The acidconcentration was varied between 0 to 8.46 mM and gave a correspondingparticle size variation of between 1070 to 5 nm as measured by dynamiclight scattering. pH was read using a Fisher Scientific pH metercalibrated between 4 and 7 pH. The data is summarized in Table 1A whichshows the effect of nitric acid in controlling the particle size.Samples were also made with acid but without copper iodide (samples S45,S47 and S49 with 0.846, 4.227 and 8.46 mM nitric acid respectively butwithout any copper iodide), these samples were tested to ensure thatacidity of the sample was not responsible for the antimicrobial effect.Another aspect of note is that different sources of PVP may havedifferent acidity depending on the method used to produce them, and mayrequire a different extent of pH adjustment to control the particlesize. As an example in this case when no nitric acid was used, theparticle size was 1070 nm, whereas in Example 28 where a different PVP(PVP from Aldrich) was used (without added acid), the particle size was4 to 6 nm.

TABLE 1A pH of Particle Size Sample # % Cu dispersion [HNO₃] (nm) S440.0749 6.17  0.00 mM 1070 S46 0.0749 2.59 0.846 mM 323 S48 0.0749 2.364.227 mM 315 S50 0.0749 1.37 8.460 mM 5

To a 50 ml round bottom flask was added 0.81 g of PVP (Luvitec K17 fromBASF) and 15 ml acetonitrile. This was stirred to form a solution freeof color. To the PVP solution was added 0.0095 g CuI (Aldrich, 99.5%purity). This was stirred to form a transparent yellow solution. ThePVP/CuI solution was dried on a rotary evaporator at 45° C. This formeda yellow solid. This solid was redispersed in 7.5 ml of deionized water.This was stirred to form a cloudy white solution. To the redispersedPVP/CuI solution was added different acids in a volume of 7.5 ml indifferent concentrations (strengths) as shown in the table below. Thissolution was stirred while keeping it away from light. After 1 day ofstirring the solution in most cases it became transparent as shown inTable 1B (“Solution Clarity” column). The pH of these solutions was alsomeasured. The pH is dependent on several factors, type and amount ofPVP, amount of CuI, type and concentration of acid in the solution. Theaverage particle size in clear solutions is expected to be below 10 nm,and significantly higher for others. The solution was diluted to 59.07ppm of total copper content in phosphate buffered saline (PBS; pH 7.4;Sigma-Aldrich, St. Louis, Mo.) and pH measurements were again taken.This was the typical concentration of copper that was used in generatingseveral of the antimicrobial testing results in liquid suspensions. Thistest was done to assure that antimicrobial properties of thesenanoparticles are measured in suspensions which are in a consistent pHrange of about 6 and 7.4 (or up to the pH of the buffer). As areference, the pH of human skin is about 5.5, urine is about 6.0 and ofblood 7.34 to 7.45. The results after adding different strengths ofhydrochloric acid, nitric acid, and sulfuric acid are summarized inTable 1B. This table shows that different acids can be used in differentconcentrations to control both the pH and the particle size, but all ofthese in the buffer solution can result in pH greater than 6.

TABLE 1B Neat pH pH in buffer, Experi- wt % Wt % of aqueous Solution59.07 ppm ment Cu+ PVP [Acid] dispersion clarity Cu⁺ 1 0.00317 8.1 06.110 Cloudy 7.303 2 0.00317 8.1 HCl 3.153 Cloudy 7.020 2 mM 3 0.003178.1 HCl 2.636 Clear 7.020 4 mM 4 0.00317 8.1 HCl 2.285 Clear 6.810 6 mM5 0.00317 8.1 HNO₃ 2.621 Clear 7.019 2 mM 6 0.00317 8.1 HNO₃ 2.130 Clear6.690 4 mM 7 0.00317 8.1 HNO₃ 1.885 Clear 6.297 6 mM 8 0.00317 8.1 H₂SO₄2.458 Clear 6.877 2 mM 9 0.00317 8.1 H₂SO₄ 2.074 Clear 6.448 4 mM

Example 37 Synthesis of Ag_(0.5)Cu_(0.5)I Nanoparticles

This method results in “solid solutions,” meaning not separate distinctliquid phases of Cud and AgI but where one metal is substituted for theother randomly throughout the crystal or a non-crystalline latticestructure of the solid. 10 g of PVP (10,000 MW, Sigma Aldrich Cat.#PVP10) was dissolved in 40 ml of DI water (18 Mohm-cm) and to this wasadded 0.0246 g (0.145 mmol) of silver nitrate (≧99.0% ACS reagent SigmaAldrich Cat. #209139). To this pale yellow solution was added 0.0350 g(0.145 mmol) of copper nitrate trihydrate, (≧98% Sigma Aldrich Cat.#61197), to give a dark yellow solution. In a separate vessel 0.0481 g(0.29 mmol) of potassium iodide, (≧99.0% ACS reagent Sigma Aldrich Cat.#60400), was dissolved in 10 ml DI water (18 Mohm-cm) and added dropwise (0.34 ml/minute) to the silver, copper nitrate PVP solution. Thisresulted in a pale yellow dispersion of a solid solution ofsilver-copper iodide (Ag_(0.5)Cu_(0.5)I). Dynamic light scattering on adilute sample of the dispersion gave a mean particle size of 29 nm.

Example 38 Synthesis of Ag_(0.25)Cu_(0.75)I Nanoparticles

Nano-particle dispersion of silver copper iodide solid was preparedaccording to example #37 except that the molar concentrations of themetal ions were adjusted according to the formula Ag_(0.25)Cu_(0.75)I.Dynamic light scattering of a dilute sample of the dispersion gave amean particle size of 10 nm.

Example 39 Synthesis of Ag_(0.75)Cu_(0.25)I Nanoparticles

Nano-particle dispersion of silver copper iodide solid was preparedaccording to example #37 except that the molar concentrations of themetal ions were adjusted according to the formula Ag_(0.75)Cu_(0.25)I.Dynamic light scattering of a dilute sample of the dispersion gave amean particle size of 8 nm.

Example 40 Infusion of Metal and Inorganic Metal Compounds into PorousParticles

This example teaches the synthesis and antimicrobial testing of acomposition having antimicrobial activity comprising a copper halideparticle selected from the group consisting of copper iodide, copperbromide and copper chloride, and a porous carrier particle in which thecopper halide particle is infused, the carrier particle stabilizing thecopper halide particle such that an antimicrobially effective amount ofions are released into the environment of the microbe.

The copper halide-porous particle composition is demonstrated by twoprocess embodiments which were used to infuse copper halide into poroussilica carrier particles. These methods may also be used to incorporateother metal compounds (including other metal halides) and metals byreactive precipitation and/or by the evaporation of the solvent. Toincrease the amount of the infused material in the carrier particle,concentrated solutions (including saturated or close to saturatedsolutions) of metal halides can be used. Once the solutions are infusedin the pores, the porous particles are removed and dried so that themetal compound deposits on the surface of the particles (includingsurfaces of the pores). To increase the concentration of the metalhalides further, one can repeat the process several times usingsaturated or close to saturated solutions so that the already depositedmaterial is not solubilized. Various types of porous silica particleswere used from Silicycle Inc. (Quebec City, Canada). These were IMPAQ®angular silica gel B10007B hydrophilic silica. They had average particlesize of 10 μm and a pore size of 6 nm, with pore volume of about 0.8ml/g and a surface area of >450 m²/g); or silica with particle size of 0to 20 μm range (pore size 6 nm, surface area 500 m²/g); or silica 0.5 to3 μm in range (product number R10003B, pore size 6 nm).

Method 1

0.6 g of CuI (from Sigma Aldrich, 98.5% purity) was dissolved in 20 mlacetonitrile at room temperature (use of about 0.68 g of CuI would havesaturated the solution). 1 g of silica powder (0-20 μm) was added tothis solution. The solution was stirred for three hours at roomtemperature (this time period could have varied from a few seconds tomore than three hours), then filtered through 0.45 μm nylon filter (fromMicron Separations Inc., Westboro, Mass.) and finally dried at 70° C.Using a spatula, the material is easily broken down into a fine powder.The analysis of this silica using inductively coupled plasma (ICP)atomic absorption spectroscopy at a commercial laboratory showed thatthe copper by weight was 1.88% of silica.

Example 41 Infusion of Metal and Inorganic Metal Compounds into PorousParticles: Method 2

In this method the solvent for CuI was 3.5 M KI solution in water. KIsolution was prepared by dissolving 29 g of KI in 40 ml of deionizedwater, stirring and adding water to complete a final volume of 50 ml.The volume of the KI solution after mixing was measured to be 50 ml.1.52 g of CuI was added and stirred at room temperature. The solutionturned yellow immediately and by the next day it darkened somewhat. To 6ml of this solution, 0.5 g of porous silica carrier particles (0.5 to 3μm) were added and stirred for six hours. The silica particles werefiltered and were then added to water so as to precipitate CuI trappedon the surface of the silica. The analysis of this silica using ICP AAinstrument showed that the copper by weight was 1.46% of silica.

Example 42a Preparation of Polyurethane/CuI Dispersions by Wet Grinding

The samples were ground in a wet grinding mill produced by NetzschPremier Technologies LLC (Exton Pa.), equipment model was Minicer®. Thegrinding beads were made of YTZ ceramic (300 μm in diameter). Theinterior of the mill was also ceramic lined. 99.9% purity CuI was usedto be ground to finer particle size using aqueous media. Two differenttypes of aqueous media were used. In the first case the material was analiphatic urethane 71/N aqueous dispersions (35% solids) sold under theTradename of ESACOTE® obtained from Lamberti SpA, (Gallarate, Italy).This material is used for aqueous furniture varnishes and also for metalcoatings. The second material was a PVP (Aldrich molecular weight10,000) solution in water.

For the polyurethane dispersion, 10 g of copper iodide was added forevery 100 ml of dispersion. As the grinding proceeded, the viscosityincreased and the dispersion was diluted with a mixture of 7% n-ethylpyrrolidone and 93% water by weight. 60 ml of diluents was addedthroughout the process. The samples started out with 50 grams CuI and500 grams of the PU dispersion. It should be noted that the surface ofthe ground particles was being functionalized by the PU dispersion(which comprised of hydrophobic polyurethane and a surfactant amongstother additives). A total of 60 grams of 7% 1-ethyl-2-pyrrolidone wasadded periodically throughout the milling process as follows: 25 gramsat 75 minutes, 10 grams at 105 minutes, 15 grams at 120 minutes, and 10grams at 150 minutes. Approximately 100 mL of product was taken out ofthe mill at 75 and 105 minutes (before the addition of the solvent), andthe remainder was pumped out at the 210 minute mark. At the end theprocess, the total solids content including CuI was 35%, the polymericcontent was 27.2% and the % of Cud to that of the polymer was 28.6%.During grinding the maximum temperature was 38° C. After 210 minutes ofgrinding, the particle size was measured. The circulation speed andagitation speed settings on the equipment were both at six. Particlesize measurement was conducted by HORIBA Laser Scattering Particle SizeDistribution Analyzer (model LA-950A). The average particle size was 68nm with a standard deviation of 7.4 nm. To test the stability of thesuspension with ground particles, the particle size was measured againthe next day which gave the mean size as 70 nm with a standard deviationof 8.2 nm.

Example 42b Preparation of PVP/CuI Dispersions by Wet Grinding

For the PVP dispersion, the formulation was 480 grams: 20 grams CuI, 60grams PVP (Aldrich 10,000MW), 400 grams de-ionized water. Grindingparameters were the same as in 42a. Samples were pulled out after 45,120 and 210 minutes of grinding under the same conditions as above(Example 42a), the particle size (mean size) was respectively 920 nm(bimodal distribution with peaks at 170 and 1,500 nm), 220 nm and 120 nmrespectively, when measured using the HORIBA apparatus as describedabove.

6. Testing of Particle Suspensions for Efficacy Against Bacteria,Viruses and Fungi

a. Microbial Assays

The antimicrobial effectiveness of the functionalized particles wasevaluated using the following standard methods.

Maintenance and Preparation of Microbial Isolates:

Test bacteria were obtained from the American Type Culture Collection(ATCC, Manassas, Va.) or The University of Arizona, Tucson, Ariz.:Escherichia coli (ATCC #15597), Enterococcus faecalis (ATCC #19433),Pseudomonas aeruginosa (ATCC #27313), Staphylococcus aureus (ATCC#25923), Mycobacterium fortuitum (ATCC #6841), Salmonella entericaserovar Typhimurium (ATCC 23564), and Streptococcus mutans (ATCC#25175). Escherichia coli 77-30013-2 a copper resistant strain wasobtained from Dr. Chris Reusing and Bacillus Cereus was obtained fromDr. Helen Jost at the University of Arizona, Tucson, Ariz.

Bacterial isolates used in these studies were routinely cultured onTryptic Soy Agar (TSA; Difco, Sparks, Md.) at 37° C. or in Tryptic SoyBroth (TSB) medium at 37° C. on an orbital shaker at 200 r.p.m. in thecase of M. fortuitum, Tween 80 (polyethylene glycol to sorbitanmonooleate; Sigma Aldrich, St. Louis, Mo.) was added to the broth to afinal concentration of 0.1% (v/v) to inhibit the formation of bacterialaggregates.

Maintenance and Preparation of Viruses:

Test viruses were obtained from the ATCC or Baylor College of MedicineHouston, Tex.: MS2 coliphage (ATCC#15597-B1) and Poliovirus 1 (strainLSc-2ab) Baylor College of Medicine Houston, Tex.

MS2 was maintained as described: Test tubes containing approximately 5mls of soft TSA containing 0.8% Bacto agar (Difco, Sparks, Md.) at 45°C. were inoculated with overnight cultures of E. coli and approximately1×10⁵ plaque forming units (PFU) of MS2. The soft agar overlaysuspensions were gently vortexed and poured evenly across the top of TSAplates and allowed to solidify. Following incubation of 24 hours at 37°C., 6 ml of sterile phosphate buffered saline (PBS; pH 7.4;Sigma-Aldrich, St. Louis, Mo.) was added to the agar overlays andallowed to sit undisturbed for 2 hours at 25° C. Following theincubation the PBS suspension was collected and centrifuged (9,820×g for10 min) to pellet the bacterial debris. The remaining supernatantcontaining MS2 was filtered through a 0.22 μm (Millex; Millipore,Bedford, Mass.) membrane pre-wetted with 1.5% beef extract and stored insterile tubes at 4° C. until use. To determine the MS2 titer, thedouble-agar overlay method as described above was used, however afterthe 24 hour incubation at 37° C., MS2 was enumerated by plaque formationto determine the number of PFU/ml.

Poliovirus 1 (strain LSc-2ab) was maintained as described: Poliovirus 1were maintained in cell culture flasks containing BGM (Buffalo greenmonkey kidney; obtained from Dan Dahiing at the United StatesEnvironmental Protection Agency, Cincinnati, Ohio) cell monolayers withminimal essential medium (MEM, modified with Earle's salts; IrvineScientific, Santa Ana, Calif.) containing (per 100 ml total volume) 5 mlof calf serum (CS; HyClone Laboratories, Logan, Utah), 3 ml of 1 M HEPESbuffer (Mediatech Inc., Manassas, Va.), 1.375 ml of 7.5% sodiumbicarbonate (Fisher Scientific, Fair Lawn, N.J.), 1 ml of 10 mg/mlkanamycin (HyClone Laboratories, Logan, Utah), 1 ml of 100×antibiotic-antimycotic (HyClone Laboratories, Logan, Utah), and 1 ml of200 mM glutamine (Glutamax; HyClone Laboratories, Logan, Utah) at 37° C.with 5% CO₂.

Viruses were propagated by inoculating BGM cell monolayers. Followingthe observation of ≧90% destruction of the cell monolayer, the cellculture flasks were frozen at −20° C. and thawed three successive timesto release the viruses from the host cells. The culture suspension wasthen centrifuged (1000×g for 10 min) to remove cell debris, and thenprecipitated with polyethylene glycol (PEG; 9% w/v) and sodium chloride(5.8% w/v) overnight at 4° C. (Black et al. “Determination of Ct valuesfor chlorine resistant enteroviruses,” J. Environ. Sci. Health A Tox.Hazard Subst. Environ. Eng. 44: 336-339, 2009). Following the overnightincubation the viral suspension was centrifuged (9,820×g for 30 min at4° C.) and the viral pellet re-suspended in 10 ml PBS. A Vertrel XFextraction was performed at a 1:1 ratio to promote monodispersion of thevirus and, the removal of lipids (centrifugation at 7,500×g for 15 minat 4° C.) (Black et al., 2009). The top aqueous layer containing thevirus was carefully removed using a pipette and aliquoted in 1 mlvolumes in sterile cryogenic vials (VWR, Radnor, Pa.). A viral titrationfor poliovirus 1 was performed using a 10-fold serial dilutionplaque-forming assay described by Bidawid et al., “A feline kidney cellline-based plaque assay for feline calicivirus, a surrogate for Norwalkvirus.” 3. Virol. Methods 107: 163-167. (2003). BGM cell monolayers in6-well tissue culture plates (Corning Inc., Corning, N.Y.) were rinsedtwice with 0.025 M TRIS buffered saline [0.32 L TBS-1 (31.6 g/L Trizmabase, 81.8 g/L NaCl, 3.73 g/L KCl, 0.57 g/L Na₂HPO₄— anhydrous) in 3.68L ultrapure H₂O] and then inoculated with 0.1 ml volumes of 10-foldserial dilutions of the virus stock and incubated at 37° C. for 30minutes. Following this incubation period, 3 ml of a soft solution ofMEM containing (per 100 ml) 0.75% Bacto-agar (Becton, Dickenson and Co.,Sparks, Md.), 2% FBS (HyClone Laboratories, Logan, Utah), 3 ml of 1 MHEPES buffer (Mediatech Inc., Manassas, Va.), 1 ml of 7.5% sodiumbicarbonate (Fisher Scientific, Fair Lawn, N.J.), 1 ml of 10 mg/mlkanamycin (HyClone Laboratories, Logan, Utah), 1 ml of 100×antibiotic-antimycotic (HyClone Laboratories, Logan, Utah), and 1 ml of200 mM glutamine (Glutamax; HyClone Laboratories, Logan, Utah) was addedas an overlay to each well and allowed to solidify. The plates were thenincubated at 37° C. with 5% CO₂ for two days. Following incubation, theagar overlays were removed and the cell monolayers were stained with0.5% (w/v) crystal violet (Sigma-Aldrich, St. Louis, Mo.) dissolved inultrapure water and mixed 1:1 with 95% ethanol. Plaques were counted toenumerate infectious viruses.

Maintenance and Preparation of Molds:

Test molds were obtained from The University of Arizona, Tucson, Ariz.:Penicillium and Aspergillus niger isolates were obtained from Dr.Charles Gerba.

Penicillium and Aspergillus niger isolates were maintained onSabouraud's agar (Neogen Corporation, Lansing, Mich.) slants at 25° C.Mature slant cultures containing fruiting bodies were washed repeatedlywith 10 mL of sterile PBS to release spores. The spore suspension wasthen transferred to a 15 mL conical tube and vortexed to disperse thespores.

1) Bacterial Kill Assay.

Overnight suspensions were harvested by centrifugation (9,820×g, 15 min,20° C., JA-14 rotor, Beckman J2-21 centrifuge; Beckman Coulter, Inc.,Fullerton, Calif.) and resuspended in 100 mls of sterile PBS. The abovecentrifugation process was carried out two additional times and thefinal harvest was resuspended in 10 mls of PBS. Bacterial suspensionswere then adjusted in PBS to an optical turbidity (measured using aBIOLOG turbidimeter, Hayward, Calif.) equivalent to a McFarland number0.5 standard. Sterile 50 ml polypropylene conical tubes (BectonDickinson and Company, Franklin Lakes, N.J.) containing PBS wereinoculated with test suspensions to a final concentration ofapproximately 1.0×10⁶ CFU/ml. Functionalized particles of the presentinvention were evaluated at either 10 ppm silver or 59 ppm copper. Testsamples were then placed on an orbital shaker (300 rpm) at 25° C. forthe duration of the experiment. At predetermined time intervals (e.g.,1, 3, 5, 24 hours), 100 μl samples were collected and neutralized withDey Engley neutralizing broth (D/E; Difco, Sparks, Md.) at a ratio of1:10. Bacterial samples were serially diluted in sterile PBS andenumerated using the spread plate method (Eaton et al., “Spread. PlateMethod,” in Standard Methods for the Examination of Water & Wastewater,21^(st) ed., American Public Health Association, Washington, D.C., pp.9-38-9-40.9215C. 2005) at 37° C. for either 24 hours (E. coli, P.aeruginosa, S. aureus, and E. faecalis) or 48 and 72 hours (M. fortuitumand S. mutans).

Evaluation of Antimicrobial Properties of Porous Silica Particles:

Experiments for porous silica particles without CuI and those comprisingCuI were conducted in 100 ml of sterile PBS in 250 ml Erlenmeyer flasks.Bacterial suspensions were added to a final concentration of 1.0×10⁶CFU/ml. Powdered silica samples were tested at 0.1 g dry weight per 100ml of PBS. A control with bacteria but no added particles was alsoincluded. Powdered silica samples were added to each flask and kept insuspension by agitation using stir plates (VWR VMS-C7, VWR, Radnor, Pa.)for the duration of the experiment at 25° C. At predetermined timeintervals (e.g. 15 minutes, 1, 6, 24 hours), 1 ml samples were collectedand neutralized with Dey Engley neutralizing broth (D/E; Difco, Sparks,Md.) at a ratio of 1:2.

2) Viral Kill Assay.

Poliovirus 1 experiments were conducted in 10 ml of sterile PBS in 50 mlsterile polypropylene conical tubes (Becton Dickinson and Company,Franklin Lakes, N.J.). MS2 experiments were conducted in 50 ml ofsterile PBS in 250 ml sterile covered Pyrex beakers. The purified stocksof the viruses were added separately to the tubes/beakers to achieve thedesired final test concentration of approximately 1.0×10⁶ PFU/ml.Functionalized particles of the present invention were evaluated ateither 10 ppm silver or 59 ppm copper. The tubes/beakers were thenplaced on an orbital shaker (300 rpm) for the duration of theexperiment. Experiments were performed at 25° C. At predetermined timeintervals (e.g., 3, 5, 7, 24 hours), 100 μl samples were collected andneutralized with Dey Engley neutralizing broth (D/E; Difco, Sparks, Md.)at a ratio of 1:10. Functionalized particle efficacy was determined bythe agar overlay method as described above in maintenance andpreparation of viruses section.

3) Mold Kill Assay.

Sterile 50 ml polypropylene conical tubes (Becton Dickinson and Company,Franklin Lakes, N.J.) containing PBS were inoculated with mold sporesuspensions of approximately 1.0×10⁶ CFU/ml. Functionalized particles ofthe present invention were evaluated at either 10 ppm silver or 59 ppmcopper. Test samples were then placed on an orbital shaker (300 rpm) at25° C. for the duration of the experiment. At predetermined timeintervals (e.g., 1, 3, 5, 24 hours), 100 μl samples were collected andneutralized with Dey Engley neutralizing broth (DIE; Difco, Sparks, Md.)at a ratio of 1:10. Mold samples were serially diluted in sterile PBSand enumerated with the spread plate method (Eaton et al., “Spread PlateMethod,” in Standard Methods for the Examination of Water & Wastewater,21^(st) ed., American Public Health Association, Washington, D.C., pp.9-38-9-40. 9215C, 2005) at 25° C. for 48 and 72 hours.

4) Determination of Antimicrobial Activity by Optical DensityMeasurements.

Bacterial suspensions with or without antimicrobial particles wheremonitored for growth using a turbidimetric measurement. Turbid or cloudysuspensions indicated growth or increase in biomass whereas clearsuspensions indicate no growth or no increase in biomass. A deficiencyor lack of growth correlates to the effectiveness of the antimicrobialparticles. Optical densities where monitored using a spectrophotometersuch as an Eppendorf Bio Photometer cuvette reader (Eppendorf NorthAmerica, Inc, Enfield, Conn.) or Biotek Synergy 2 multiwell plate reader(Biotek Inc., Winooski, Vt.).

5) Determination of Activity Against Bacterial Spore Germination.

Preparation of spores. One-liter cultures were grown in Erlenmeyerflasks containing trypticase soy broth (TSB; Difco, Sparks, Md.)inoculated with exponential-phase cells from trypticase soy precultures.The cultures were incubated at 37° C. on a rotary shaker at 200 rpm.Spore development was visualized by phase contrast microscopy. Thecultures were harvested after 72 hours. All harvesting and washingprocedures were performed at 25° C. Spores were harvested bycentrifugation and resuspended with one quarter culture volume of asolution containing 1M KCL and 0.5M NaCl. Centrifugation was repeatedand cultures were resuspended in one tenth culture volume of 50 mMTris-HCL (pH 7.2) containing 1 mg lysozyme per milliliter. Cellsuspensions were then incubated at 37° C. for 1 hour followed byalternate centrifugation and washing with 1M NaCl, deionized water,0.05% sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS), 50 mM Tris-HCl, pH 7.2; 10 mM EDTAand three additional wash steps in deionized water. Spore suspensionswere heat-shocked at 80° C. for 10 min and stored at 4° C. until use(Nicholson, W.L. and P. Setlow, 1990. Sporulation, germination, andoutgrowth. pp. 391-450. In Harwood, CR and Cutting, SM (eds.) Molecularbiological methods for Bacillus. John Wiley & Sons, New York).

Germination assay. Two milliliter polypropylene tubes were inoculatedwith B. cereus spore suspensions treated with approximately 2 pM or 59ppm of nanoparticles for 24 hours at room temperature. After 24 hours ofincubation, suspensions were pelleted by centrifugation at 13,000×g, andthe supernatant removed and discarded. Pellets were resuspended in 200μl of TSB. The tubes were then incubated for 24 hours at 25° C. and 37°C. Germination characteristics of B. cereus spores after 24 hours ofincubation with nanoparticle chemistries were determined by opticaldensity (Eppendorf Bio Photometer) at a wavelength of 600 nm (OD600).

Example 43 Antimicrobial Effectiveness of Particle Suspensions AgainstTarget Microbes

The results listed above do not cover each and every variation of thematerials used in Tables 2 through 9. The formula numbers are only aguide to correlate the samples among these tables. All the samples inthese tables were made by PROCEDURE SET 1 (Examples 1 through 20).

For purposes of illustration, Formula #E33_(B) in Table 2 comprises amixture of different functionalized metal halide particles includingsilver iodide and copper bromide, where the particles are surfacemodified with PVP and then TGN. This particular formula was made usingthe process of Example 16. Since in this formulation silver is 5.6 ppmin excess of the iodide, the silver stoichiometry was 56% more ascompared to the sodium iodide salt.

In all cases for testing against microbes, the solutions were diluted soas to result in 10 ppm silver metal concentration unless mentionedotherwise.

This example reflects the testing of a variety of binary mixed metalhalide particle compositions and their efficacy against seven differentpathogenic species. The results obtained from evaluating theantimicrobial effectiveness of a range of particles prepared withdifferent chemistries and surface modifications against target microbesare presented in Tables 2-9 for the following microbes: E. coli (ATCC15579), Table 2; P. aeruginosa (ATCC 27313), Table 3; M. fortuitum (ATCC6841), Table 4; S. aureus (ATCC 25923), Table 5; E. faecalis (ATCC19433), Table 6; Copper-resistant E. coli (77-30013-2), Table 7; MS2colliphage (ATCC 15597-B1), Table 8; Poliovirus (PV-1, LSc-2ab), Table9.

The abbreviations used in the following tables are as follows:

Amino Acid Modifiers column: Leu=Leucine; Lys=Lysine; Asp=Aspartic acid;PVP=Polyvinylpyrrolidone. Thiol Modifier Column: AT=Aminothiol;TGO=Thioglycerol; TGN=Thioglycine; TLA=Thiolactic acid; TMA=Thiomalicacid; TOA=Thiooctic acid; TS=Thiosilane. Subscripts for Formula Numbers:R#=repeat test with same sample for the “#” time, i.e. R1 is the 1^(st)repeat of this sample. Letters other than “R” indicate a sample that hasbeen remade, i.e. A is the first remake, B is the second remake, etc.

The headers in Tables 2-9 are explained as follows: “Formula #” refersto an internal tracking number; “1° Constituent (% weight)” refers tothe metal constituent and to its weight percent in the first metalhalide particle; “1° Halogen” refers to the halogen in the primary metalhalide salt particle; “2° Constituent” refers to the metal constituentin the second metal halide particle; “2° Halogen” refers to the halogenin the second metal halide salt particle; “AA Modifier (Ag:AA, in mol)”refers to the amino acid or polymer, if any, used to stabilize theparticle(s) in solution, and its silver to amino acid/polymer ratio inmoles; “Thiol modifier (Ag:SH)” refers to the thiol modifier used tostabilize the particle(s) in water, and the ratio of silver to thiol inmoles; “Exposure time” is the time (usually stated in hours) that abacterial sample was exposed to a test article coated with a compositionof the present invention; “Log₁₀” is the resulting reduction in thenumber of bacterial counts versus a control, on a logarithmic scale.

TABLE 2 Nanoparticle Results against Escherichia coli (ATCC 15597) 1° AAThiol Exposure Constituent 1° 2° 2° Modifier Modifier Time Formula # (%weight) Halogen Constituent * Halogen (Ag:AA) (Ag:SH) (hours) Log₁₀E-30_(B) Ag (0.50%) I Cu (5.0%) Br PVP(1:2.5) — 5 3.57 ex: 5.6 ppmE-33_(B) Ag (0.50%) I Cu (5.0%) Br PVP(1:2.5) TGN (1:0.50) 5 4.32 ex:5.6 ppm H-02_(B) Ag (0.50%) Br Cu (5.0%) I PVP(1:2.5) — 5 >4.80 ex: 0.15ppm H-04_(A) Ag (0.50%) Br Cu (5.0%) I PVP(1:2.5) TGN (1:0.50) 5 3.80ex: 0.15 ppm * 2° Constituent metal concentration is given in relativemolar percentage based on silver moles from 1° constituent (e.g., Ag0.5%, Cu 5% means formulation has 0.5 Wt % silver and the copper/silverratio is 5%. Before use the formulation is diluted to 10 ppm silver,unless mentioned otherwise.)

Table 2 contains the numbers of E. coli bacteria after exposure for 5hours to selected combinations of the functionalized particles, whichare seen to decrease by more than 4 logs (i.e., fewer than 1 microbe in10,000 survive). Specifically, Formulae E-33_(B), a combination of AgIand CuBr particles functionalized with PVP and TGN show a 4.32 log₁₀reduction in K coll. Also, Formula H-02_(B), a combination of AgBr/CuIparticles functionalized with PVP only, showed the single highest E.coli reduction, a greater than 4.8 log₁₀ reduction.

TABLE 3 Nanoparticle Results against Pseudomonas aeruginosa (ATCC 27313)1° AA Thiol Exposure Constituent 1° 2° 2° Modifier Modifier Time Formula# (% weight) Halogen Constituent * Halogen (Ag:AA) (Ag:SH) (hours) Log₁₀D-02 Ag (0.50%) Br Cu (2.5%) Br Asp (1:2) TGN (1:0.50) 5 3.42 D-03 Ag(0.50%) Br Cu (2.5%) Br Asp (1:2) TLA (1:0.50) 5 2.18 D-04 Ag (0.50%) BrCu (2.5%) Br Asp (1:2) TMA (1:0.50) 5 2.60 D-07 Ag (0.50%) I Cu (2.5%)Br Asp (1:2) TGN (1:0.50) 5 2.42 D-08 Ag (0.50%) I Cu (2.5%) Br Asp(1:2) TLA (1:0.50) 5 3.21 D-09 Ag (0.50%) I Cu (2.5%) Br Asp (1:2) TMA(1:0.50) 5 4.12 D-09_(R1) Ag (0.50%) I Cu (2.5%) Br Asp (1:2) TMA(1:0.50) 5 2.16 D-12 Ag (0.50%) Br Cu (5.0%) Br Asp (1:2) TGN (1:0.50) 53.62 D-17 Ag (0.50%) I Cu (5.0%) Br Asp (1:2) TGN (1:0.50) 5 3.86D-17_(R1) Ag (0.50%) I Cu (5.0%) Br Asp (1:2) TGN (1:0.50) 5 4.35 D-18Ag (0.50%) I Cu (5.0%) Br Asp (1:2) TLA (1:0.50) 5 3.20 D-19 Ag (0.50%)I Cu (5.0%) Br Asp (1:2) TMA (1:0.50) 5 4.20 D-19_(R1) Ag (0.50%) I Cu(5.0%) Br Asp (1:2) TMA (1:0.50) 5 3.81 E-05 Ag (0.50%) Br Cu (10.0%) BrPVP (1:2.5) — 5 >5.65 E-06 Ag (0.50%) Br Cu (15.0%) Br PVP (1:2.5) —5 >5.65 E-07 Ag (0.50%) Br Cu (2.5%) Br PVP (1:2.5) — 5 2.11 E-08 Ag(0.50%) Br Cu (2.5%) Br PVP (1:2.5) TGO (1:0.50) 5 2.66 E-09 Ag (0.50%)Br Cu (2.5%) Br PVP (1:2.5) TGN (1:0.50) 5 2.53 E-10 Ag (0.50%) Br Cu(2.5%) Br PVP (1:2.5) TLA (1:0.50) 5 2.42 E-11 Ag (0.50%) Br Cu (2.5%)Br PVP (1:2.5) TMA (1:0.50) 5 2.08 E-12 Ag (0.50%) Br Cu (5.0%) Br PVP(1:2.5) — 5 2.49 E-13 Ag (0.50%) Br Cu (5.0%) Br PVP (1:2.5) TGO(1:0.50) 5 3.06 E-14 Ag (0.50%) Br Cu (5.0%) Br PVP (1:2.5) TGN (1:0.50)5 3.45 E-15 Ag (0.50%) Br Cu (5.0%) Br PVP (1:2.5) TLA (1:0.50) 5 3.33E-16 Ag (0.50%) Br Cu (5.0%) Br PVP (1:2.5) TMA (1:0.50) 5 3.19 E-17 Ag(0.50%) I Cu (10.0%) Br PVP (1:2.5) — 5 5.05 E-18 Ag (0.50%) I Cu(15.0%) Br PVP (1:2.5) — 5 >5.65 E-19 Ag (0.50%) I Cu (5.0%) Br PVP(1:2.5) — 5 4.54 E-20 Ag (0.50%) I Cu (5.0%) Br PVP (1:2.5) TGO (1:0.50)5 3.54 E-21 Ag (0.50%) I Cu (5.0%) Br PVP (1:2.5) TGN (1:0.10) 5 3.85E-22 Ag (0.50%) I Cu (5.0%) Br PVP (1:2.5) TGN (1:0.50) 5 4.19 E-23 Ag(0.50%) I Cu (5.0%) Br PVP (1:2.5) TLA (1:0.50) 5 3.22 E-24 Ag (0.50%) ICu (5.0%) Br PVP (1:2.5) TMA (1:0.50) 5 2.77 E-25 Ag (0.50%) I Cu (2.5%)Br PVP (1:2.5) — 5 4.51 ex: 6.3 ppm E-25_(R1) Ag (0.50%) I Cu (2.5%) BrPVP (1:2.5) — 5 5.53 ex: 6.3 ppm E-26 Ag (0.50%) I Cu (2.5%) Br PVP(1:2.5) TGO (1:0.50) 5 >5.76 ex: 6.3 ppm E-26_(R1) Ag (0.50%) I Cu(2.5%) Br PVP (1:2.5) TGO (1:0.50) 5 5.53 ex: 6.3 ppm E-26_(R1) Ag(0.50%) I Cu (2.5%) Br PVP (1:2.5) TGO (1:0.50) 3 2.02 ex: 6.3 ppm E-27Ag (0.50%) I Cu (2.5%) Br PVP (1:2.5) TGN (1:0.50) 5 >5.76 ex: 6.3 ppmE-27_(R1) Ag (0.50%) I Cu (2.5%) Br PW (1:2.5) TGN (1:0.50) 5 5.53 ex:6.3 ppm E-27_(R1) Ag (0.50%) I Cu (2.5%) Br PVP (1:2.5) TGN (1:0.50) 33.97 ex: 6.3 ppm E-28 Ag (0.50%) I Cu (2.5%) Br PVP (1:2.5) TLA (1:0.50)5 2.74 ex: 6.3 ppm E-29 Ag (0.50%) I Cu (2.5%) Br PVP (1:2.5) TMA(1:0.50) 5 5.28 ex: 6.3 ppm E-29_(R1) Ag (0.50%) I Cu (2.5%) Br PVP(1:2.5) TMA (1:0.50) 5 2.48 ex: 6.3 ppm E-30 Ag (0.50%) I Cu (5.0%) BrPVP (1:2.5) — 5 >5.76 ex: 5.6 ppm E-30_(A) Ag (0.50%) I Cu (5.0%) Br PVP(1:2.5) — 5 4.42 ex: 5.6 ppm E-30_(B) Ag (0.50%) I Cu (5.0%) Br PVP(1:2.5) — 5 5.32 ex: 5.6 ppm E-30_(R1) Ag (0.50%) I Cu (5.0%) Br PVP(1:2.5) — 5 >5.53 ex: 5.6 ppm E-30_(R1) Ag (0.50%) I Cu (5.0%) Br PVP(1:2.5) — 3 2.17 ex: 5.6 ppm E-31 Ag (0.50%) I Cu (5.0%) Br PVP (1:2.5)TGO (1:0.50) 5 5.46 ex: 5.6 ppm E-31_(R1) Ag (0.50%) I Cu (5.0%) Br PVP(1:2.5) TGO (1:0.50) 5 3.75 ex: 5.6 ppm E-33 Ag (0.50%) I Cu (5.0%) BrPVP (1:2.5) TGN (1:0.50) 5 5.16 ex: 5.6 ppm E-33_(A) Ag (0.50%) I Cu(5.0%) Br PVP (1:2.5) TGN (1:0.50) 5 5.20 ex: 5.6 ppm E-33_(B) Ag(0.50%) I Cu (5.0%) Br PVP (1:2.5) TGN (1:0.50) 5 5.06 ex: 5.6 ppmE-33_(C) Ag (0.50%) I Cu (5.0%) Br PVP (1:2.5) TGN (1:0.50) 5 >5.30 ex:5.6 ppm E-33_(R1) Ag (0.50%) I Cu (5.0%) Br PVP (1:2.5) TGN (1:0.50)5 >5.53 ex: 5.6 ppm E-33_(R1) Ag (0.50%) I Cu (5.0%) Br PVP (1:2.5) TGN(1:0.50) 3 4.25 ex: 5.6 ppm E-34 Ag (0.50%) I Cu (5.0%) Br PVP (1:2.5)TLA (1:0.50) 5 3.53 ex: 5.6 ppm E-35 Ag (0.50%) I Cu (5.0%) Br PVP(1:2.5) TMA (1:0.50) 5 5.46 ex: 5.6 ppm E-35_(R1) Ag (0.50%) I Cu (5.0%)Br PVP (1:2.5) TMA (1:0.50) 5 4.75 ex: 5.6 ppm F-01 Ag (0.50%) Br Cu(2.5%) I PVP (1:2.5) — 5 4.09 ex: 0.074 ppm F-02 Ag (0.50%) Br Cu (5.0%)I PVP (1:2.5) — 5 >5.65 ex: 0.194 ppm ex: 0.15 ppm F-03 Ag (0.50%) Br Cu(10.0%) I PVP (1:2.5) — 5 >5.65 ex: 0.5 ppm ex: 0.3 ppm F-06 Ag (0.50%)I Cu (10.0%) I PVP (1:2.5) — 5 4.81 ex: 0.5 ppm ex: 0.3 ppm G-01 Cu(0.50%) I — — PVP (1:2.5) — 5 5.35 ex: 5 ppm H-01 Ag (0.50%) Br Cu(2.5%) I PVP (1:2.5) — 5 4.40 ex: 0.074 ppm H-02 Ag (0.50%) Br Cu (5.0%)I PVP (1:2.5) — 5 >5.65 ex: 0.15 ppm H-02_(A) Ag (0.50%) Br Cu (5.0%) IPVP (1:2.5) — 5 5.50 ex: 0.15 ppm H-02_(B) Ag (0.50%) Br Cu (5.0%) I PVP(1:2.5) — 5 5.60 ex: 0.15 ppm H-04 Ag (0.50%) Br Cu (5.0%) I PVP (1:2.5)TGN (1:0.50) 5 5.50 ex: 0.15 ppm H-04_(A) Ag (0.50%) Br Cu (5.0%) I PVP(1:2.5) TGN (1:0.50) 5 3.92 ex: 0.15 ppm H-04_(B) Ag (0.50%) Br Cu(5.0%) I PVP (1:2.5) TGN (1:0.50) 5 5.00 ex: 0.15 ppm H-05 Ag (0.50%) BrCu (10.0%) I PVP (1:2.5) — 5 5.65 ex: 0.3 ppm H-06 Ag (0.50%) Br Cu(5.0%) I PVP (1:2.5) — 5 >5.30 H-07 Ag (0.50%) Br Cu (5.0%) I PVP(1:2.5) TGN (1:0.50) 5 4.46 I-1 Cu (0.50%) I — — PVP (1:2.5) — 5 >5.30X-01 Ag (0.50%) Br Cu (5.0%) I PVP (1:2.5) — 5 5.20 X-02 Ag (0.50%) BrCu (15.0%) I PVP (1:2.5) — 5 5.50 X-03 Ag (0.50%) Br Cu2+ (5.0%) I PVP(1:2.5) — 5 4.60 ex: 0.15 ppm X-04 Ag (0.50%) Br Cu2+ (15.0%) I PVP(1:2.5) — 5 4.46 ex: 0.45 ppm

Table 3 shows selected results of combinations of functionalized metalhalide particles against P. aeruginosa. Surprisingly, there aretwenty-nine different combinations of silver halide and copper halideparticles that exhibited at least 5 log₁₀ reduction over the test periodof 5 hours. Considering the results on P. aeruginosa, it is seen thatfunctionalized silver halide-copper halide nanoparticle combinations arenotably more effective in killing the microbes than functionalizedsilver metal nanoparticles alone. Functionalized silver metalnanoparticles alone showed no more than 0.93 log₁₀ reduction,functionalized silver bromide particles 3.68 log₁₀, and functionalizedsilver iodide particles 0.97 log₁₀ (data not shown). Silver chloridenanoparticles, with the exception of Formula A-07 (not shown) did nothave much effect on P. aeruginosa. It is also seen that combinations offunctionalized silver halide particles with functionalized copper halideparticles are more effective than functionalized silver halide particlesalone, given the twenty-nine results in excess of 5 log₁₀ reduction. Itis further seen that combinations of functionalized silver halideparticles with functionalized copper halide particles where the halidesare different on the two cations provide further enhanced antimicrobialeffectiveness. It is noteworthy that two examples of CuI-PVP, FormulaeG-01 and I-1, recorded a 5.35 and 5.30, respectively, log₁₀ reductionwithout any silver halide co-particle.

TABLE 4 Nanoparticle Results against Mycobacterium fortuitum (ATCC 6841)1° AA Thiol Exposure Constituent 1° 2° 2° Modifier Modifier Time Formula# (% weight) Halogen Constituent * Halogen (Ag:AA) (Ag:SH) (hours) Log₁₀E-19_(A) Ag (0.50%) I Cu (5.0%) Br PVP (1:2.5) — 48 2.62 E-22_(A) Ag(0.50%) I Cu (5.0%) Br PVP (1:2.5) TGN (1:0.50) 48 2.84 E-30_(B) Ag(0.50%) I Cu (5.0%) Br PVP (1:2.5) — 48 2.73 ex: 5.6 ppm E-30_(C) Ag(0.50%) I Cu (5.0%) Br PVP (1:2.5) — 48 4.41 ex: 5.6 ppm E-30_(C) Ag(0.50%) I Cu (5.0%) Br PVP (1:2.5) — 18 2.58 ex: 5.6 ppm E-33_(B) Ag(0.50%) I Cu (5.0%) Br PVP (1:2.5) TGN (1:0.50) 48 4.73 ex: 5.6 ppmE-33_(C) Ag (0.50%) I Cu (5.0%) Br PVP (1:2.5) TGN (1:0.50) 48 3.84 ex:5.6 ppm E-33_(C) Ag (0.50%) I Cu (5.0%) Br PVP (1:2.5) TGN (1:0.50) 182.31 ex: 5.6 ppm F-05_(A) Ag (0.50%) I Cu (5.0%) I PVP (1:2.5) — 48 3.05ex: 0.194 ppm ex: 0.15 ppm F-05_(B) Ag (0.50%) I Cu (5.0%) I PVP (1:2.5)— 48 4.19 ex: 0.194 ppm ex: 0.15 ppm F-05_(B) Ag (0.50%) I Cu (5.0%) IPVP (1:2.5) — 18 2.10 ex: 0.194 ppm ex: 0.15 ppm G-01_(B) Cu (0.50%) I —— PVP (1:2.5) — 48 2.07 ex: 5 ppm H-02_(B) Ag (0.50%) Br Cu (5.0%) I PVP(1:2.5) — 48 4.73 ex: 0.15 ppm H-02_(C) Ag (0.50%) Br Cu (5.0%) I PVP(1:2.5) — 18 3.17 ex: 0.15 ppm H-02_(C) Ag (0.50%) Br Cu (5.0%) I PVP(1:2.5) — 48 2.89 ex: 0.15 ppm H-04_(A) Ag (0.50%) Br Cu (5.0%) I PVP(1:2.5) TGN (1:0.50) 48 4.13 ex: 0.15 ppm H-04_(B) Ag (0.50%) Br Cu(5.0%) I PVP (1:2.5) TGN (1:0.50) 18 2.81 ex: 0.15 ppm H-04_(B) Ag(0.50%) Br Cu (5.0%) I PVP (1:2.5) TGN (1:0.50) 48 2.59 ex: 0.15 ppmH-06 Ag (0.50%) Br Cu (5.0%) I PVP (1:2.5) — 48 3.45 H-06 Ag (0.50%) BrCu (5.0%) I PVP (1:2.5) — 18 2.84 I-1 Cu (0.50%) I — — PVP (1:2.5) — 482.31

Table 4 shows the results of testing functionalized metal halideparticles against M. fortuitum. The results shown in Table 4 for M.fortuitum indicate remarkable killing efficiency, with five examples ofreductions in bacterial populations greater than 4 logs in 48 hours.(Since mycobacteria are known to undergo mitosis at a much slower ratethan conventional bacteria, the exposure times for M. fortuitum werelonger than those for P. aeruginosa or E. coli.) These results on M.fortuitum suggest that the present functionalized particles would alsobe effective against M. tuberculosis, and even against M. tuberculosiswhich is resistant to conventional antibiotics—since the mechanism ofantimicrobial activity of the present antimicrobial agents is verydifferent from the antimicrobial mechanisms of conventional antibiotics.Notably, the CuI particles alone were inferior to the combinations,suggesting a synergistic effect between the silver halide and copperhalide particles.

TABLE 5 Nanoparticle Results against Staphylococcus aureus (ATCC 25923)1° AA Thiol Exposure Constituent 1° 2° 2° Modifier Modifier Time Formula# (% weight) Halogen Constituent * Halogen (Ag:AA) (Ag:SH) (hours) Log₁₀E-19_(A) Ag (0.50%) I Cu (5.0%) Br PVP (1:2.5) — 24 3.76 E-22_(A) Ag(0.50%) I Cu (5.0%) Br PVP (1:2.5) TGN (1:0.50) 24 2.74 E-30_(C) Ag(0.50%) I Cu (5.0%) Br PVP (1:2.5) — 24 >5.19 ex: 5.6 ppm E-33_(C) Ag(0.50%) I Cu (5.0%) Br PVP (1:2.5) TGN (1:0.50) 24 3.66 ex: 5.6 ppmH-02_(C) Ag (0.50%) Br Cu (5.0%) I PVP (1:2.5) — 24 2.94 ex: 0.15 ppm

Table 5 shows the results of testing functionalized metal halideparticles against S. aureus. Fewer investigations were carried out onthe antimicrobial effectiveness of the functionalized particles againstGram-positive bacteria, the results obtained against S. arueus shownhere are nevertheless encouraging, with reductions in bacterialpopulations greater than 5 logs in 24 hours having been obtained(Formula E-30_(C), AgI/CuBr-PVP, >5.19 log₁₀).

TABLE 6 Nanoparticle Results against Enterococcus faecalis (ATCC 19433)1° AA Thiol Exposure Constituent 1° 2° 2° Modifier Modifier Time Formula# (% weight) Halogen Constituent * Halogen (Ag:AA) (Ag:SH) (hours) Log₁₀E-19_(A) Ag (0.50%) I Cu (5.0%) Br PVP (1:2.5) — 24 2.19 E-30_(C) Ag(0.50%) I Cu (5.0%) Br PVP (1:2.5) — 24 2.47 ex: 5.6 ppm E-33_(C) Ag(0.50%) I Cu (5.0%) Br PVP (1:2.5) TGN (1:0.50) 24 >5.24 ex: 5.6 ppmE-33_(C) Ag (0.50%) I Cu (5.0%) Br PVP (1:2.5) TGN (1:0.50) 5 2.53 ex:5.6 ppm F-05_(B) Ag (0.50%) I Cu (5.0%) I PVP (1:2.5) — 24 2.14 ex:0.194 ppm ex: 0.15 ppm G-01_(B) Cu (0.50%) I — — PVP (1:2.5) — 24 >5.24ex: 5 ppm G-01_(B) Cu (0.50%) I — — PVP (1:2.5) — 5 2.59 ex: 5 ppmH-02_(C) Ag (0.50%) Br Cu (5.0%) I PVP (1:2.5) — 24 2.39 ex: 0.15 ppmH-04_(B) Ag (0.50%) Br Cu (5.0%) I PVP (1:2.5) TGN (1:0.50) 24 >5.24 ex:0.15 ppm H-04_(B) Ag (0.50%) Br Cu (5.0%) I PVP (1:2.5) TGN (1:0.50) 52.90 ex: 0.15 ppm

Table 6 shows the results of testing functionalized metal halideparticles against E. faecallis. From the results it is apparent that thepresent functionalized particles are even effective against enterococci.As seen in the table, reductions in bacterial populations greater than 5log₁₀ in 24 hours have been obtained using combinations offunctionalized particles. Specifically, E-33_(C) (AgI/CuBr-PVP-TON), andH-04_(B) (AgBr/CuI-PVP-TON). The copper iodide example, G-01_(B)(CuI-PVP) matched or exceeded the silver halide/copper halidecombinations.

TABLE 7 Nanoparticle Results against Copper Resistant Escherichia coli1° AA Thiol Exposure Constituent 1° 2° 2° Modifier Modifier Time Formula# (% weight) Halogen Constituent * Halogen (Ag:AA) (Ag:SH) (hours) Log₁₀E-33_(C) Ag (0.50%) I Cu (5.0%) Br PVP (1:2.5) TGN (1:0.50) 5 2.93 ex:5.6 ppm H-04_(B) Ag (0.50%) Br Cu (5.0%) I PVP (1:2.5) TGN (1:0.50) 52.35 ex: 0.15 ppm

Table 7 shows the results of testing functionalized metal halideparticles against copper-resistant E. coli. When tested against themicrobes, reductions in bacterial populations approaching 3 logs havebeen obtained in 5 hours using combinations of the presentfunctionalized particles (see Table 7). Specifically, almost three logsof reduction 99.9% (log₁₀ 2.93) was obtained with Formula E-33C(AgI/CuBr-PVP-TGN).

TABLE 8 Nanoparticle Results against MS2 coliphage (ATCC 15597-B1) 1° AAThiol Exposure Constituent 1° 2° 2° Modifier Modifier Time Formula # (%weight) Halogen Constituent * Halogen (Ag:AA) (Ag:SH) (hours) Log₁₀A-04_(C) Ag (0.50%) Br — — Asp (1:2) TMA (1:0.25) 24 5.28 A-07_(A) Ag(0.50%) Cl — — Asp (1:2) TGN (1:0.50) 24 4.08 D-02_(A) Ag (0.50%) Br Cu(2.5%) Br Asp (1:2) TGN (1:0.50) 24 2.63 D-09_(A) Ag (0.50%) I Cu (2.5%)Br Asp (1:2) TMA (1:0.50) 24 >5.28 D-17_(A) Ag (0.50%) I Cu (5.0%) BrAsp (1:2) TGN (1:0.50) 24 >5.28 D-19_(A) Ag (0.50%) I Cu (5.0%) Br Asp(1:2) TMA (1:0.50) 24 >5.28 E-06_(A) Ag (0.50%) Br Cu (15.0%) Br PVP(1:2.5) — 24 2.20 E-27_(A) Ag (0.50%) I Cu (2.5%) Br PVP (1:2.5) TGN(1:0.50) 24 >4.07 ex: 6.3 ppm E-29_(A) Ag (0.50%) I Cu (2.5%) Br PVP(1:2.5) TMA (1:0.50) 24 >4.07 ex: 6.3 ppm E-33_(D) Ag (0.50%) I Cu(5.0%) Br PVP (1:2.5) TGN (1:0.50) 24 >4.07 ex: 5.6 ppm E-35_(A) Ag(0.50%) I Cu (5.0%) Br PVP (1:2.5) TMA (1:0.50) 24 >4.07 ex: 5.6 ppmG-01_(B) Cu (0.50%) I — — PVP (1:2.5) — 24 >4.07 ex: 5 ppm G-01_(C) Cu(0.50%) I — — PVP (1:2.5) — 24 >5.25 ex: 5 ppm H-01_(A) Ag (0.50%) Br Cu(2.5%) I PVP (1:2.5) — 24 4.01 ex: 0.074 ppm H-02_(D) Ag (0.50%) Br Cu(5.0%) I PVP (1:2.5) — 24 4.65 ex: 0.15 ppm H-04_(C) Ag (0.50%) Br Cu(5.0%) I PVP (1:2.5) TGN (1:0.50) 24 >5.25 ex: 0.15 ppm H-05_(A) Ag(0.50%) Br Cu (10.0%) I PVP (1:2.5) — 24 5.25 ex: 0.3 ppm I-1 Cu (0.50%)I — — PVP (1:2.5) — 24 >4.07 X-03_(A) Ag (0.50%) Br Cu2+ (5.0%) I PVP(1:2.5) — 24 3.31 ex: 0.15 ppm X-04_(A) Ag (0.50%) Br Cu2+ (15.0%) I PVP(1:2.5) — 24 >5.25 ex: 0.45 ppm

Table 8 shows the results of testing functionalized metal halideparticles against a different genus, that of bacteriophage.Bacteriophage are viruses that attack bacteria. Results of thefunctionalized metal halide particles against MS2 coliphage are shown inTable 8. The present functionalized particles were tested againstbacteriophage to evaluate their potential effectiveness against viruseswithout the necessity of testing involving cell culture. As seen inTable 8, combinations of the present functionalized particles were foundto be highly effective in decreasing the microbial populations of thisbacteriophage, with decreases exceeding 5 logs in 24 hours beingobtained.

TABLE 9 Nanoparticle Results against Poliovirus (PV-1 LSc-2ab) 1° AAThiol Exposure Constituent 1° 2° 2° Modifier Modifier Time Formula # (%weight) Halogen Constituent * Halogen (Ag:AA) (Ag:SH) (hours) Log₁₀G-01_(B) Cu (0.50%) I — — PVP (1:2.5) — 24 2.00 ex: 5 ppm G-01_(C) Cu(0.50%) I — — PVP (1:2.5) — 24 2.56 ex: 5 ppm I-1 Cu (0.50%) I — — PVP(1:2.5) — 24 3.11

The testing carried out on Poliovirus, some of which are shown in Table9, were likewise encouraging although not as dramatic as the resultsobtained on the bacteriophage. Functionalized CuI particles were foundto be particularly effective against poliovirus, with decreases inmicrobial populations greater than 3 logs being found in 24 hours. Afurther encouraging result of the testing on poliovirus was theobservation of the cell culture work carried out here, which showed noadverse effect of the functionalized particles on cell viability andreproduction in culture.

It is seen from the data in Tables 2-9 that remarkable decreases inbacterial populations can be obtained using functionalized nanoparticlescomprising embodiments of the invention including metal halides. Sinceamong Gram-negative bacteria, P. aeruginosa is generally more difficultto kill than E. coli, more data were presented for P. aeruginosa.

Example 44 Evaluation of Effectiveness of Functionalized Silver Halide,Modified Silver Halide and Mixed-Metal Halide Nanoparticles Against B.Cereus Spores

All previously-mentioned chemicals are incorporated by reference herein.

a) Preparation of Stock Solutions and Sols:

1% alanine-Solution

1% w/w aqueous solution of Alanine was made by dissolving 0.05 g Alaninein 4.95 g water and keeping it stirred until it was a clear solution.

Preparation of CuI particles with excess Cu²⁺ (see Example 18)

Preparation of CuI-particles (see Example 17)

Preparation of AgBr particles (see Example 5)Preparation of AgBr particles-doped with 2.5% CuBr

CuBr-Solution:

0.0106 g of copper (I) bromide was dissolved in 0.500 g 48% Hydrobromicacid, afterwards diluted with 16 g water and kept stirring until a clearsolution was obtained.

0.2079 g silver nitrate was dissolved in 13.682 g water and then 3.30 g10% w/w PVP (MW 10,000) aqueous solution added into it. Finally 6.810 gof CuBr-solution prepared above was slowly dropped under stirring. Theconcentration of silver based on the calculation of metallic silver is0.55% w/w in which Ag/Cu ratio is 40/l in mol/mol (2.5%). This procedureresults in largely AgBr particles which also comprise copper bromide(doping of AgBr particles by CuBr, or particles of mixed halides).

Preparation of AgI Particles-Doped with 2.5% CuBr

CuBr-Solution:

0.0106 g of copper (I) bromide was dissolved in 0.048 g 48% Hydrobromicacid, afterwards diluted with 8 g water and kept stirring until a clearsolution was obtained.

0.2079 g silver nitrate was dissolved in 12 g water and then 3.30 g 10%w/w PVP (MW 10,000) aqueous solution added into it. 3.324 g ofCuBr-solution prepared above were slowly dropped under stirring.

Finally a solution of 0.1628 g sodium iodide in 5 g water was slowlydropped and kept stirring overnight to allow the formation of particles.The concentration of silver based on the calculation of metallic silverwas 0.55% w/w in which Ag/Cu ratio is 40/1 in mol/mol (2.5%).

b) Preparation of Functionalized Particle Samples:

Samples were prepared by mixing of components as prepared above in asure seal bottle under stirring in the order described in Tables 10 and11 as shown below (“NP” denotes nanoparticles). Table 10 shows theformulations surface modified by alanine (ALA) and Table 11 showsformulations modified with PVP.

TABLE 10 Sample designations in FIG. 1 (w/alanine) Components AgBrAgBr—2.5%CuBr AgI—2.5%CuBr AgBr—2.5%CuI AgBr—2.5%CuI2 AgBr-NP, g 3.16  —— 3.5  3.5  AgBr—2.5%CuBr-NP, g — 3.5  — — — AgI—2.5%CuBr-NP, g — — 3.5 — — CuI-NP with excess Cu²⁺, g — — — 0.063 — CuI-NP, g — — — — 0.063 1%Alanine-sol, g 0.057 0.057 0.057 0.063 0.063 Water, g 0.633 0.293 0.2930.644 0.644

TABLE 11 Sample designations in FIG. 1 (PVP) AgBr- AgBr—2.5%CuBr-AgI—2.5%CuBr- AgBr—2.5%CuI- AgBr—2.5%CuI2- Components PVP PVP PVP PVPPVP AgBr-NP, g 3.5  — — 3.5  3.5  AgBr—2.5%CuBr-NP, g — 3.5  — — —AgI—2.5%CuBr-NP, g — — 3.5  — — CuI-NP with excess Cu²⁺, g — — — 0.063 —CuI-NP, g — — — — 0.063 Water, g 0.77 0.35 0.35 0.707 0.707

The germination responses of spores to various particles functionalizedwith L-alanine (ALA) or PVP were measured after a 24 hour staticincubation period. The results are shown in FIG. 1, where the particlesidentified with an “-Ala” suffix were functionalized with L-alanine.

As seen in FIG. 1, the control B. cereus spore samples exhibitedappreciable increases in optical density (appreciable growth) whenexposed to nutrient conditions, while B. cereus spores treated with theindicated functionalized metal halide particles exhibited essentially nochange in optical density (no growth) when exposed to the same nutrientconditions. Besides the specific functionalized particles used in thesetests, one may also use other functionalized particles of thisinvention, including functionalized nanoparticles, to deactivate spores.While L-alanine was used as a functionalizing agent in some of thetests, other amino acids and combinations of amino acids may also beused.

Example 45 Effect of CuI Particles on Inhibiting the Growth of Spores

FIG. 2 is a bar chart that shows the effect of CuI/PVP inhibition on B.cereus spores growth. CuI/PVP suspensions were made as in Example 28,and the copper concentration was 59 ppm in the final medium comprisingCuI/PVP and the bacterial broth. This figure clearly shows theeffectiveness of CuI/PVP in preventing B. cereus spores growth, and infact even achieving a slight reduction as compared to the starting sporeconcentration.

Examples 46-52 Additional Antimicrobial Results Using ParticulateSuspensions

Antimicrobial testing was carried out on the following microbes:

Ex. 46—Pseudomonas aeruginosa (ATCC 27313) (Table 13)

Ex. 47—Staphylococcus aureus (ATCC 25923) (Tables 14)

Ex. 48—Streptococcus mutans (ATCC 25175) (Table 15)

Ex. 49—S. enterica Typhimurium (ATCC 23564) (Table 16)

Ex. 50—Mycobacterium fortuitum (ATCC 6841) (Table 17)

Ex. 51—Penicillium (Table 18)

Ex. 52—Aspergillus niger (Table 19)

Table 12 is a list of samples, particle sizes and functionalization usedin subsequent tables 13-19 with antimicrobial results. The particle sizein this table was measured using dynamic light scattering (here andabove, unless mentioned otherwise). In some cases the particle size wasconfirmed by optical absorption or by scanning electron microscopy(SEM). For measurement by dynamic light scattering, the nanoparticlesuspensions were diluted in DI water by taking one to two drops of thesuspension and adding several ml of water to ensure that a clear (to theeye) solution was obtained in a 1 cm path length cuvette. If theparticles were large, the solutions were stirred just beforemeasurement. Several measurements were made to ensure repeatability andreproducibility of samples. Most measurements were carried out using aMalvern Zetasizer Nano ZS light scattering analyzer (available fromMalvern Inc, Westborough, Mass.) at ambient temperature, with abackscatter mode at a 173° scattering angle. Commercial polystyrenespheres with known size (60 nm) were used for instrument calibration.Some of the measurements were also made on the Nanotrac particleanalyzer (available from Microtrac Inc, Montgomeryville, Pa.), also inthe backscattering mode using a fiberoptic probe. The data was convertedand reported in the volume fraction mode.

TABLE 12 Preparation Metal or Sample method halide (CuI Particle number(Example#) purity, %) Surface Modification size*, nm S1 25 AgBr/CuI (98)PVP-Aldrich 182 S2 26 Ag PVP-Aldrich 7 S3 27 AgBr PVP-Aldrich 4 S4 28CuI (98) PVP-Aldrich 4 S5 29 Ag/AgBr PVP-Aldrich Ag = 4, AgBr = 4 S6 30Ag/CuI (98) PVP-Aldrich Ag = 7, CuI = 4 S7 31 AgBr/CuI (98) PVP-AldrichCuI = 4, AgBr = 4 S8 26 Ag PVP-Aldrich 6 S9 28 CuI (98) PVP-Aldrich 4 ES10 27 AgBr PVP-Aldrich 4 E S11 26 Ag PVP-Aldrich 7 E S12 28 CuI (98)PVP-Aldrich >15 E S13 37 Ag₀.₅Cu₀.₅I PVP-Aldrich 29 S14 28 CuI (98)PVP-Aldrich >30 E S15  6 AgBr Thiomalic acid/ 25 E Aspartic acid S16 S1728 CuI (98) PVP-Aldrich 4 E S18 27 AgBr PVP-Aldrich 4 E S19 27 AgBrPVP-Aldrich 4 E S20  9 AgBr Thioglycine/Aspartic acid 25 E S21  9 AgBrThioglycine/Aspartic acid 25 E S22  2a Ag Thioglycine/Aspartic acid <20E S23  2a Ag Thioglycine/Aspartic acid <20 E S24  2b AgThioglycine/Aspartic acid <20 E S25  2b Ag Thioglycine/Aspartic acid <20E S26 28 CuI (98) PVP-Aldrich 4 E S27 33 CuI (99.999) PVP- 4 E BASF +HNO₃ + CH₃COOH S28 34 CuI(99.999) VP-VA Copolymer- 4 E BASF + HNO₃ S2935 PVP- 4 E BASF + HNO₃ + Na₂SO₃ S30 34 VP-VA Copolymer- 4 E BASF +HNO₃ + Na₂SO₃ S31 36 CuI (99.999) PVP-BASF + HNO₃ 4 S32 36 CuI (99.999)PVP-BASF + HNO₃ 263 and 471 S33 28 CuI (98) PVP-BASF 5 S34 24 CuI(99.999) PEG(10k, Aldrich) + HNO₃ 4 E S34 32 CuCl PVP-BASF 4 to 10 E S3526 Ag PVP-Aldrich 6 S36 27 AgBr PVP-Aldrich 4 E S37 Purchased AgI PVP(AgI nano from 25 ChemPilots) S38  36a CuI (99.999) PVP-BASF + HNO₃ 4S39 32 CuCl PVP-BASF <10 E S40 No AM Porous silica Silica 0.5 materialto 3 μm S41  40(1) CuI (98.5) Porous silica Silica 0 to 20 μm S42 (40(2)CuI (98.5) Porous silica, Silica 0.5 to 3 μm S43 28 CuI(98) PVP-Aldrich6 S44  36b CuI (99.999) PVP-BASF + HNO₃ 1070 S45  36b No AM PVP-BASF +HNO₃ material S46  36b CuI (99.999) PVP-BASF + HNO₃ 323 S47  36b No AMPVP-BASF + HNO₃ material S48  36b CuI (99.999) PVP-BASF + HNO₃ 315 S49 36b No AM PVP-BASF + HNO₃ material S50  36b CuI (99.999) PVP-BASF +HNO₃ 5 S51  42b CuI (99.5%) PVP-Aldrich (Ground) 120 S52  42b CuI(99.5%) PVP-Aldrich (Ground) 220 S53  42b CuI (99.5%) PVP-Aldrich(Ground) 920 (bimodal 170 and 1,500 nm) *“E” stands for those particleswhose size was estimated. Estimated particle size is based on comparisonto previously measured particle sizes for particles made according tothe same process.

Example 46 Efficacy Against P. Aeruginosa of Various Functionalized.Nanoparticles

Table 13 shows the reduction of P. aeruginosa by exposure to varioustype of metal halide particles and their combinations, and also indifferent concentrations, sizes and surface modifications. All of thesewere tested with controls (meaning without metal halide particles orother known antimicrobial materials). The results from control are notshown, as they all uniformly showed either no growth or moderate growthof microbes under the same conditions. Experiments were conducted induplicate. Further, in many cases, e.g., in Table 13, result R1 (at 24hr), the results show >4.57 log reduction. In the same table at 24 hrsthe result R2 also show >5.34 log reduction. This does not imply thatthe result in the second case is more effective than in the first, allit says is that given a starting concentration of microbes, at thatpoint there were too few too count. Thus use of the symbol “>” in all ofthese tables means that the maximum log reduction for that experimentwas reached. That is to say, after the indicated time, there were noviable microbes seen. Sample number (starting with “S” in column 2) whenstated will correspond to the sample number in Table 12. If exactly thesame result number (Column 1, starting with “R”) is used in varioustables (Tables 13 to 19), then that corresponds to the same formulationand batch being tested for different microbes. For example R2 result inTable 13 was obtained on P. aeruginosa, and the same suspension was usedto obtain the R2 result against S. aureus in Table 14.

TABLE 13 P. aeruginosa Conc, PPM, Time Result Sample # Particles Ag, Cu15 min 30 min 1 hr 2 hr 6 hr 24 hr R1 S1 AgBr/CuI 10, 100 0.4 0.93*1.53* >4.57 R2 S8 Ag 10, 0  0.94 1.11 >5.34 R3 S3 AgBr 10, 0  0.951.07 >5.34 R4 S9 CuI 0, 59 >5.34 >5.34 >5.34 R5 S8 + S9 Ag + AgBr 10 +10, 0 0.92 1.08 >5.34 R6 S3 + S9 AgBr + CuI 10, 59  >5.34 >5.34 >5.34 R7S12 CuI 0, 59 4.32 >4.47 >4.47 >4.47 R8 S11 + S12 Ag + CuI 10,59  >4.47 >4.17 >4.47 >4.47 R9 S10 + S12 AgBr + CuI 10, 59 4.17 >4.47 >4.47 >4.47 R10 S11 + S12 Ag + CuI 10, 6  0.09 0.07 0.08 0.20R11 S12 CuI 0, 12 0.31 0.33 0.33 0.42 1.22 >4.41 R12 S11 + S12 Ag + CuI2, 12 0.3 0.3 0.42 0.46 1.32 >4.41 R13 S10 + S12 AgBr + CuI 2, 12 0.340.25 0.34 0.41 1.13 >4.41 R14 S11 + S12 Ag + CuI 10, 59 2.35 >4.41 >4.41 >4.41 >4.41 >4.41 R15 S15 AgBr 10, 0  0.05 0.91 >4.40R16 S15 + S17 AgBr + CuI 10, 59  2.22 3.36 3.75 >4.25 >4.40 R17 S20 AgBr10, 0  0.19 0.18 0.16 0.27 3.04 R18 S21 AgBr 10, 0  0.22 0.15 0.18 0.182.90 R19 S20 + S17 AgBr + CuI 10, 59  1.55 2.37 3 3.69 >4.73 R20 S21 +S17 AgBr + CuI 10, 59  1.67 2.54 3.06 3.82 >4.73 R21 S24 Ag 10, 0  0.240.3 0.33 0.32 0.28 R22 S24 + S17 Ag + CuI 10, 59  3.684.31 >4.53 >4.77 >4.77 R23 S17 CuI 0, 59 2.30 2.97 3.81 4.76 >4.77 R24S22 Ag 10, 0  0.18 0.14 0.17 0.19 0.19 R25 S22 + S26 Ag + CuI 10,59  >4.50 >4.65 >4.65 >4.65 >4.65 R26 S26 CuI 0,59 >4.65 >4.65 >4.65 >4.65 >4.65 R27 S27 CuI 0,59 >6.76 >6.76 >6.76 >6.76 >6.76 R28 S28 CuI 0,59 >6.76 >6.76 >6.76 >6.76 >6.76 R29 S31 CuI 0,59 >4.78 >4.78 >4.78 >4.78 >4.78 R30 S32 CuI 0, 59 4.11 >4.78 4.364.54 >4.78 R31 S33 CuI 0, 59 >4.19 >4.48 4.63 >4.78 >4.63 R32 S35 Ag 60,0  0.05 −0.05 −0.02 0.06 1.57 R33 S36 AgBr 60, 0  0.01 −0.11 −0.01 0.153.67 R34 S37 AgI 60, 0  0.01 0.01 0.06 0.19 0.29 R35 S38 CuI 0,60 >4.56 >4.56 >4.56 >4.56 >4.56 R36 S39 CuCl 0, 60 0.05 0.03 0.19 0.471.21 R37 S40 No AM 0, 0  0.24 0.2 0.04 0.02 material R38 S41 CuI 0, 190.97 2.32 >4.59 3.58 R39 S42 CuI 0, 15 1.50 3.89 >5.16 4.57 R40 S43 CuI0, 59 >5.04 >5.19 >5.19 >5.19 R41 S44 CuI 0, 59 >4.73 >5.19 >5.19 >5.19R42 S45 No AM 0, 0  0.26 0.30 0.69 0.01 material R43 S46 CuI 0, 595.04 >5.19 >5.19 >5.19 R44 S47 No AM 0, 0  0.34 0.45 0.66 0.07 materialR45 S48 CuI 0, 59 >5.19 >5.19 >5.19 >5.19 R46 S49 No AM 0, 0  0.28 0.370.77 0.95 material R47 S50 CuI 0, 59 >5.19 >5.19 >5.19 >5.19 R48 S51 CuI0, 59 >4.53 >4.53 >4.53 >4.53 R49 S52 CuI 0, 59 4.38 >4.53 >4.53 >4.53R50 S53 CuI 0, 59 3.91 3.84 >4.53 >4.53

Results on P. aeruginosa, a gram negative bacterium, are shown in Table13. Comparison of R1 and R6 (for CuI and AgBr mixture) in Table 13 showsthat when the particle size of CuI is decreased from about 182 to 4 nmalong with the changes in the preparation method, the efficacy at 24 hrremains about the same, achieving the maximum log reduction. However,use of the smaller particle size impacts the efficacy at shorter times,producing higher log reductions at shorter times. Result R9 in thistable shows that efficacy at much shorter times, i.e., at 15 minutes issurprisingly high. This high efficacy is seen even in those formulationswhere only CuI is used, such as in R7. All of the above formulations usesuspensions with a copper concentration of 59 ppm. Interestingly as seenin R5, when Ag and AgBr with PVP surface modification are combined (bothat 10 ppm silver concentration, with a total silver concentration of 20ppm), their combined efficacy is not much superior to any one of thesealone in 10 ppm concentration (R2 and R3), whereas copper iodideefficacy at 59 ppm is much higher than any of these (R4).

When the copper concentration is dropped to 12 ppm, such as in R11, theefficacy at short times suffers, but one is still able to achieve thesame efficacy at 24 hrs comparable to R1 which uses larger CuI particlesand at higher copper concentration. Addition of silver as silver metalor silver bromide to copper iodide (compare R11 to R12 or R13; orcompare R7 to R8 or R9), does not improve the efficacy, showing that Cudby itself is quite effective.

Further, for P. aeruginosa, different surface modifications were used onCuI, such as PVP from Aldrich, PVP from BASF, VP-VA copolymer from BASF,Polyethylene glycol, and even acids for surface peptization (see resultsR26 to R31), and all of these show that each of these suspensions weremaximally effective. Comparison of results R15 on AgBr with R17 and R18show that in this case surface functionalization type made a differencewith thioglycine/aspartic acid being more effective than PVP. Further,comparing AgBr with Ag metal (R17 or R18 when compared with R21) showsthat when silver is incorporated as silver bromide (forthioglycine/aspartic acid modification), the formulation is moreeffective in reducing the microbe concentration. One may also mixdifferent metal halides or metal halide and a metal, and also particleswith different surface modifications with high efficacy against P.aeruginosa as shown in numerous results in this table.

Results R32 to R36 compare nanoparticles of various silver salts (AgBrand AgI), silver metal and various copper salts (CuCl and CUD, all ofthese surface modified with PVP and by themselves only, and all of themat metal concentration of 60 ppm. This data clearly shows CuI has thehighest efficacy and the other materials show lower efficacy againstthis microbe.

Results R37 through R39 were on porous silica particles. R37 was forsilica particles with a size in the range of 0.5 to 3 μm which do nothave any CuI. Result R38 was for silica particles with a size in therange of 0 to 20 μm which had CuI infused by the method of Example 40(method 1). The copper metal content in these particles was 1.9% byweight. Result R39 was for silica particles with a size in the range of0.5 to 3 μm which had CuI infused by the method in Example 41 (method2). The copper metal content in these particles was 1.5% by weight.These were tested for antimicrobial effect in a suspension, where thesilica particles were added with and without CuI. The copperconcentration in samples R38 and R39 was 19 and 15 ppm respectively. Asexpected the sample without antimicrobial additive (result R37) did notshow antimicrobial properties. The other two showed a high efficacy.

Results R40 to R47 were for samples S43 to S50 respectively. This seriesof experiments was done to evaluate the effect on the type of PVP andthe effect of the addition of an acid on the particle size offunctionalized CuI. Sample S43 was made by the procedure of Example 28and uses Aldrich PVP and the other samples were made by the procedure ofExample 36b and use BASF PVP. PVP from different sources differ inacidity depending on the process used, and may require different levelsof pH adjustment. Results R42, R44 and R46 were on samples where acidwas added but no CuI. During testing in the buffer solution withmicrobes, the pH of all solutions was above 6. All samples with CuIshowed high antimicrobial activity, and all samples without CuI did notshow any appreciable activity. It was surprising that all functionalizedparticles made by these methods showed high antimicrobial activityalthough their average sizes varied from about 1.000 nm to 6 nm.

Results R48 to R50 (on samples S51 to S53 respectively) are the resultsof suspension testing of particles made by wet grinding in the presenceof PVP comprising an aqueous solution using the process described inExample 42b. These three samples were obtained from the same run butextracted at different periods of grinding. The average particle size ofthese three samples was 120, 220 and 920 nm respectively. The lastsample, S53 with an average particle size of 920 nm, had a bimodaldistribution with particles average sizes peaking at 170 and 1,500 nm.All of these show high antimicrobial efficacy, with the smallestparticle size sample (Result R48 on Sample S51) showing a great efficacyat shorter time periods.

Example 47 Efficacy Against S. Aureus of Various FunctionalizedNanoparticles

TABLE 14 S. aureus Conc, PPM, Time Result# Sample # Particles Ag, Cu 15min 30 min 1 hr 2 hr 6 hr 24 hr R2 S8 Ag 10, 0  0.08 0.22 4.29 R3 S3AgBr 10, 0  0.46 0.39 >4.44 R4 S9 CuI 0, 59 >4.44 >4.44 >4.44 R5 S8 + S9Ag + AgBr 10 + 10, 0 0.02 0.22 >4.44 R6 S3 + S9 AgBr + CuI 10, 59  >4.444.29 >4.44 R7 S12 CuI 0, 59 >4.07 >4.31 >4.31 >4.31 R8 S11 + S12 Ag +CuI 10, 59  >4.31 >4.31 >4.31 >4.31 R9 S10 + S12 AgBr + CuI 10,59  >4.31 >4.31 4.07 >4.31 R10 S11 + S12 Ag + CuI 10, 6  0.05 0.04 0.060.09 R11 12 CuI 0, 12 0.79 0.95 1.35 1.81 2.96 >4.34 R12 S11 + S12 Ag +CuI 2, 12 0.69 0.88 1.20 1.66 3.16 >4.34 R13 S10 + S12 AgBr + CuI 2, 120.79 1.04 1.30 1.71 3.03 >4.34 R14 S11 + S12 Ag + CuI 10, 59  0.582.71 >4.34 >4.34 >4.34 >4.34 R27 S27 CuI 0,59 >6.47 >5.99 >6.47 >6.47 >6.47 >6.47 R28 S28 CuI 0,59 >6.47 >6.47 >6.05 >6.47 >6.47 >6.47

Table 14 shows results from similar experimentation on S. aureus, a grampositive bacterium responsible for common staph infections. Comparing R4to R3 and R2 in this table shows superior effectiveness of copperiodide. Comparing results on Ag metal, AgBr, their combination and CuI,shows similar behavior as for P. aeruginosa, namely that CuI was moreeffective than either silver metal or silver bromide, or mixture ofsilver+silver bromide with PVP surface modification. Also CuI in smallparticle size by itself or mixed with silver metal or silver bromide washighly effective as seen in results R7, R8 and R9. Similar conclusionfor S. aureus as for P. aeruginosa can be drawn on concentration of thecompounds, mixture of different metal halides or metal halide and ametal, and particles with different surface modifications.

Example 48 Efficacy Against S. Mutans of Various FunctionalizedNanoparticles

TABLE 15 S. mutans Conc, PPM, Time Result# Sample # Particles Ag, Cu 15min 30 min 1 hr 2 hr 6 hr 24 hr R27 S27 CuI 0,59 >4.75 >4.75 >4.60 >4.75 >4.75 >4.75 R28 S28 CuI 0,59 >4.75 >4.75 >4.75 >4.75 >4.75 >4.75

To test the broad efficacy of metal halides, and in particular forcopper iodide, we also tested functionalized nanoparticles of thismaterial against several other microbes. One of these is a strepbacterium S. mutans, commonly found in mouth infections. R27 and R28 inTable 15 shows that CuI particles modified with PVP and the copolymer(VP-VA) both resulted in effective reduction of populations of thisbacteria.

Example 49 Efficacy Against S. Enterica Typhimurium of VariousFunctionalized Nanoparticles

TABLE 16 S. enterica Typhimurium Conc, PPM, Time Result# Sample #Particles Ag, Cu 15 min 30 min 1 hr 2 hr 6 hr 24 hr R15 S15 AgBr 10, 0 0.26 0.47 0.57 1.52 >4.85 R23 S17 CuI  0,59 >4.85 >4.85 >4.85 >4.85 >4.85 R16 S15 + S17 AgBr + CuI 10,59 >4.85 >4.70 >4.50 4.70 >4.85

Table 16 shows that at 59 ppm, CuI surface modified with PVP showed ahigh degree of effectiveness (R23) against the microbe S. enterica whenused alone or in combination with AgBr modified with thiomalic andaspartic acids (R16). This was more effective as compared to AgBr alonewith a silver concentration of 10 ppm in the suspension (R15).

Example 50 Efficacy Against M. Fortuitum of Various FunctionalizedNanoparticles

TABLE 17 M. fortuitum Conc, PPM, Time Result# Sample # Particles Ag, Cu2 hr 6 hr 24 hr 48 hr 72 hr 96 hr R2 S2 Ag 10, 0  2.33 3.68 4.41 5.04 R3S3 AgBr 10, 0  1.51 1.93 1.65 2.42 R29 S4 CuI  0, 59 2.46 2.63 2.93 3R30 S2 + S3 Ag + AgBr 3.3 + 6.6, 0 0.59 1.28 1.41 1.95 R31 S2 + S4 Ag +CuI 10, 59 2.40 2.62 2.85 3.22 R32 S3 + S4 AgBr + CuI 10, 59 1.91 2.712.91 3.02 R15 S15 AgBr 10, 0  0.29 1.41 1.94 2.50 R23 S17 CuI  0, 590.79 1.69 1.35 1.41 R16 S15 + S17 AgBr + CuI 10, 59 1.48 1.35 1.58 1.29

Table 17 presents data on the antimicrobial effectiveness of thesematerials against M. fortuitum. In general CuI is effective, when usedin the same concentration as with the other microbes. One can increasethe concentration of CuI to achieve higher level of effectivenessagainst this microbe. Strongest reduction was seen by silver metalmodified with PVP (R2). This was much stronger than silver bromide (R3)or copper iodide (R29). When Ag or AgBr was combined with CuI (R31 andR32 respectively), the formulation was effective. This type of reducedactivity of combinations was not seen for other microbes.

Example 51 Efficacy Against Penicillium of Various FunctionalizedNanoparticles

TABLE 18 Penicillium Conc, PPM, Time Experiment # Sample # Particles Ag,Cu 2 hr 6 hr 24 hr 48 hr 72 hr 96 hr R27 S27 CuI 0,59 >3.98 >3.98 >3.98 >3.98 R28 S28 CuI 0, 59 >3.98 >3.98 >3.98 >3.98

To examine the effectiveness of the inorganic metal salts against molds,experiments were done against Penicillium as shown in Table 18. R27 andR28 in this table shows that CuI particles modified with PVP and thecopolymer (VP-VA) both resulted in effective reduction of this mold.

Example 52 Efficacy Against A. Niger of Various FunctionalizedNanoparticles

TABLE 19 A. niger Conc, PPM, Time Result# Sample # Particles Ag, Cu 2 hr6 hr 24 hr 48 hr 72 hr 96 hr R33 S11 Ag 50, 0 −0.09 −0.01 0.01 0.00−0.16 R34 S10 AgBr 50, 0 0.06 −0.14 0.16 0.21 0.15 R35 S14 CuI   0, 2950.06 0.82 0.77 1.43 1.99 R36 S10 + S14 AgBr + CuI  50, 295 −0.02 0.390.78 0.62 0.81Table 19 shows the results for another mold A. niger. The strongestresponse is shown by CuI (R35) by itself.

Example 53 Antimicrobial Testing of Mixed Metal Halide Suspensions(Suspensions Prepared by Methods of Examples 37, 38 and 39)

Antimicrobial testing of Ag—Cu mixed metal halides and their performancecomparison with CuI was done using optical density method. FIG. 5 is aplot bar chart of Optical Density (OD, Y-axis) as a measure of growthagainst the effect of copper iodide particles and Ag—CuI mixed metalhalides, and a control. Optical density was measured after treating thebacterial solutions with the nanoparticles of mixed metal halides (orsolid solutions of mixed metal halides). Lower optical density impliesgrowth inhibition and showed higher effectiveness. Ag_(0.25)Cu_(0.75)I,Ag_(0.5)Cu_(0.5)I, and Ag_(0.75)Cu_(0.25)I all showed effectiveantimicrobial properties against P. aureginosa (FIG. 5) and S. aureus(FIG. 6), however, none were as effective as CuI nanoparticles alone(CuI was made as in Example 23). Further, with increasing copper contentin the solid solution the efficacy of the material increased.

Example 54 Coating of Textiles with Metal Halides and theirAntimicrobial Testing

The following methods were used to prepare coating suspensions offunctionalized particles and to use these suspensions in coating textilefabrics.

a) Preparation of Particles

GLYMO_(H)-Sol:

0.144 g Formic acid and 1.71 g water respectively were added into 7.5 gGlycidoxypropyltrimethoxysilane (GLYMO) under stirring and kept stirringovernight

Preparation of AgBr particles (see Example 5)

Preparation of CuI particles (see Example 17)

Preparation of Ag^(o) particles (see Example 3, water used was 5.202 grather than 9.825 g resulting in silver concentration of 0.61% w/w.)

b) Preparation of Coated Textile Samples

i) Preparation of Coating Suspensions:

Amine cured PEG coating suspension was made using 0.80 g Polyethyleneglycol (PEG, MW=1,000) dissolved in 18.056 g water. 5.36 g ofGLYMO_(H)-Sol, 6.192 g of AgBr particles, 4.624 g of CuI particles and4.968 g of 2% w/w Jeffamine HK-511 in water respectively were slowlydropped into the PEG solution under stirring. This sol was immediatelyused to make coatings.

ii) Application of Coating Suspension to Textile Sample

A sample of cotton textile (25×25 cm, untreated cotton Muslin) waswashed in hot water and was placed in a beaker with the amine cured PEGcoating suspension from Part b) i) above. The textile sample wascompletely wet by squeezing the coating suspension out of it by handmany times and then soaking it again. Finally the wet substrate waswrung using a mechanical roller type equipment Dyna-Jet Model BL-38 andcured in oven at 120 C for 1 hour. The cured coating had theoretically1.5% w/w antibacterial material of Ag/Cu=1/1 in mol/mol.

Separately, samples of cotton textile (25×25 cm, untreated cottoncanvas) were washed in hot water and placed in a beaker with the coatingsuspension (polyurethane coating suspension or amine cured PEGsuspension). The textile sample was completely wet by squeezing thecoating sol out of it by hand many times and then soaking it again.Finally the wet substrate was wrung using Dyna-Jet Model BL-38 and curedin an oven at 120 C for 1 hour.

The antimicrobial effectiveness of fabrics coated with functionalizedparticles was evaluated using ASTM E 2149-01, incorporated by referenceherein in its entirety. Briefly, overnight cultures were adjusted to afinal concentration of 1.5×10⁶ in 250 ml Erlenmeyer flasks containingsterile PBS. Fabric samples (5.4 cm×5.4 cm) were introduced to the flaskand agitated at 25° C. At appropriate time exposure intervals, 1-mlaliquots were removed and the viable bacteria were enumerated asdescribed previously.

FIG. 3 shows the efficacy of treated fabrics containing functionalizedparticles of the present invention against P. aeruginosa. Samples weretested both initially and after washing 3 times and 10 times in ordinaryhousehold detergent. “Sample 0×” indicates it was never washed; “Sample3×” was washed three times; and Sample “10×” ten times. An uncoatedfabric sample was used as a control.

Reductions in bacterial populations exceeding 4-log₁₀ can readily beobtained using antimicrobial coatings containing the presentfunctionalized particles (FIG. 3). In addition, washing with householddetergent introduces a delay in the antimicrobial effect, but does notdecrease the antimicrobial effectiveness of the coatings.

Example 55 Preparation of Coatings with Metal Halides and theirAntimicrobial Testing

a) Preparation of Coating Sols in Organic Epoxy Matrix

The procedure for the preparation of a coating sol containing organicepoxy was as follows: 0.25 g EPON® 8281 (organic epoxy, MillerStephenson Chemical Co.) and 0.375 g Anquamine® 721 (curing agent andemulsifier, Air Products and Chemicals Inc.) were transferred in a glassbottle and mixed with a spatula until it became milky, homogenous. 1.40g AgBr-sol (for AgBr-sol preparation see Example 5), 1.04 g CuI-sol (forCuI-sol preparation see Example 17) and 0.155 g water were added intothe mixture of EPON® and Anquamine®, and the sol was kept stirring witha spatula and treated in an ultrasonic bath for about 4 minutes to beobtained a homogenous emulsion. The final coating sol has calculatedsolid content of 14% w/w. The calculated percentage of bioactivematerial (in metallic form, Ag/Cu=1/1 in mol/mol) in cured coating is 3%w/w in this example. The amounts of components used to make coatingswith different bioactive materials are as in Table 20:

TABLE 20 3% 0.75% 3% 0.75% Ag/Cu = Ag/Cu = Ag Ag 3% 0.75% 1/1 1/1 (Br)(Br) Ag° Ag° EPON ® 0.25 0.25  0.25  0.25 0.25  0.25 8281, g Anquamine ®0.375 0.375 0.375 0.375 0.375 0.375 721, g AgBr-sol, g 1.40 0.341 2.2180.542 — — CuI-sol, g 1.04 0.255 — — — — Ag°-sol, g — — — — 2.218 0.542Water, g 0.155 1.928 0.379 1.98 0.379 1.98

b) Preparation of Coating Suspensions in Epoxy Silane Matrix

The procedure used to prepare a coating suspension containing epoxysilane was as follows: suspensions having a solid content of 14% w/w formaking coatings with an epoxy slime matrix were prepared in the same wayas described in section a) above but with amounts of the componentsshown in Table 21:

TABLE 21 0.75% Ag^(o) PEG, g 0.1 Water, g 1.545 GLYMO_(H), g 0.67AgBr-NP, g — CuI-NP, g — Ag^(o)-NP, g 0.61 2% HK-511, g 0.621

c) Application of Coatings to Polystyrene 24-Well Plates

50 μL of one of the coating suspensions prepared in sections a) and b)was transferred using a pipetter into a well of a 24-well plate (SigmaAldrich, CLS3526-1 EA) and then spread with a spatula over the bottomsurface (1.9 cm²) of the well. This step was repeated three times toproduce three samples in 3 wells of the 24-well plate. The plate wasplaced in an oven at 50° C. for 10-15 minutes. Subsequently, anothercoating of a different suspension was applied to prepare a secondcoating sample, again prepared in triplicate, following the sameprocedure. After applying 8 different coatings of different compositionseach in triplicate, the 24-well plate was placed in an oven at 80° C.for 2 hours for final curing.

Provision of antimicrobial coatings on ceramic substrates other thanglass (e.g., coatings on crystalline ceramics) can be obtained usingmethods similar to these to provide antimicrobial coatings on glass. Insome cases, the initial treatment with 10% sodium hydroxide solution canbe replaced by other chemical treatments known by those skilled in theart to be effective for the specific ceramic substrates.

d) Testing of Antimicrobial Coatings

24-well polystyrene plates (Corning) containing 500 μl trypticase soybroth were inoculated with an overnight culture of P. aeruginosa to anoptical density (OD600; Eppendorf Bio Photometer) of 0.05. Plates wereincubated at 25° C. for 24 h. Following incubation, 100 μl ofsupernatant was removed from the wells and the OD600 was determined. Theantimicrobial effectiveness of solid bodies coated with functionalizednanoparticles was demonstrated (FIG. 4). It is seen from FIG. 4 thatcoatings containing functionalized nanoparticles have a pronouncedeffect in decreasing bacterial populations. It is also seen that thematrix material (control sample) of the coating has a small butmeasureable effect on the antimicrobial behavior, as shown in thedecreased OD associated with the lane marked “control”.

Example 56 Preparation of Coatings with CuI and their AntimicrobialTesting

Materials and Methods

For this example two sources for CuI were used. The first was bulkcopper iodide powder (99.5% Sigma Aldrich) and the second nano-particlesof CuI functionalized with PVP prepared from the acetonitrile processand isolated as a dry powder. For the nano-particles two high loadingsof CuI in PVP were prepared namely 60 and 50 wt % CuI in PVP. The CuIused was 99.5% from Sigma Aldrich and the PVP was 10,000 MW from SigmaAldrich. A typical high loading preparation was as follows.

To a liter pear shaped flask fitted with a stir bar was added 4.05 g ofCuI powder and 300 ml of anhydrous acetonitrile. This was stirred togive a pale yellow solution. In a separate flask fitted with a stir wereadded 4.05 g of PVP and 200 ml of anhydrous acetonitrile. This wasstirred for 2 hours to give a straw yellow colored solution. Whilestirring the CuI solution the PVP solution was slowly added to it togive a transparent yellow solution. Upon stirring at room temperaturethis solution slowly turned a light green color; this took about onehour for completion. This solution was dried under reduced pressure at30° C. to form a light green powder with a CuI content of 50 wt %. Thisprocedure was repeated except the initial CuI concentration wasincreased to 6.07 g to give a concentration of CuI in the powder of 60wt %.

Preparation of Urethane Coating Containing CuI

To a beaker was added 5 g of an aliphatic urethane 71/N aqueousdispersions (35% solids, maximum viscosity 200cP) sold under thetradename of ESACOTE obtained from Lamberti SpA, (Gallarate, Italy). Tothis was added 0.118 g of CuI powder (99.5% from Sigma Aldrich,particles not functionalized). This was stirred vigorously and 0.1 g ofthe cross linking agent PZ28 (Polyfunctional Aziridine manufactured byPolyAziridine, LLC Medford, N.J.) was added to the coating formulation.The urethane coating was applied to stainless steel substrates 2″×2″ bybrush application and cured at room temperature for 12 hours followed bytwo hours at 70° C. The cured coating was transparent with a slightbrown tint. It was durable and hard with good chemical resistance toboth water and ethanol. The Cu⁺ content of the dried coating was 2.0 wt%. This procedure was repeated except using the nano-powders of CuIdescribed above to give coated surfaces with differentconcentrations/types of Cu⁺. These coated substrates were tested forantimicrobial activity against P. aeruginosa using a method as describedbelow. As a comparison point a metal coated with DuPont antimicrobial(commercial powder coating) ALESTA™ was also tested (obtained fromDupont, Inc. (Industrial Coatings Division, Wilmington, Del.)). Theantimicrobial materials in these coatings were zeolite particles (about2 to 3 μm in size) infused with silver and zinc ions.

Test Method for evaluating Coatings (Based on Japanese IndustrialStandard JIS Z 2801: 2000, incorporated by reference herein in itsentirety.):

Test coupons (50×50 mm) were prepared by spraying with 70% ethanol toreduce bacterial background presence. Sample coupons were allowed to airdry before re-spraying with 70% ethanol and allowed to dry completelybefore testing. Polyethylene (PE) cover slips (40×40 mm) were sterilizedvia bactericidal UV for 30 minutes per side.

Testing involved preparation of McFarland number 0.5 standardizedsolution of P. aeruginosa bacteria in PBS from an overnight culture. Thestandard solution was diluted 1:100 and inoculated onto sample couponsin 400 μL volume drop-wise. Sterile PE films were placed over theinoculated area to ensure wetting of the surface beneath the film.Samples were then incubated in a sealed environment (95% relativehumidity) from zero to 24 hours at 25° C. before removal. Bacteria wererecovered by swabbing both the coupon surface and the PE film with acotton-tipped swab pre-dipped in 1 ml of Dey-Engley (DIE) neutralizingbroth. The swab was then submersed in a tube containing DIE broth andvortexed to resuspend the bacteria. Test samples were serially dilutedin sterile PBS and enumerated with the spread plate method (Eaton etal., “Spread Plate Method,” in Standard Methods for the Examination ofWater & Wastewater, 21^(st) ed., American Public Health Association,Washington, D.C., pp. 9-38-9-40. 9215C, 2005) for 24-48 hours at 37° C.The bacterial reductions were determined by comparison to the recoveryof bacteria from control samples consisting of polyurethane-coatedcoupons without nanoparticles at each exposure interval.

The coating compositions and the results are summarized in Table 22.

TABLE 22 Log₁₀ Reduction Wt % Cu⁺ Particle (P. aeruginosa) in CoatingType of CuI used size* 6 hr 24 hr 2.0 Bulk Powder 1 to 2 μm  0.31 ± 0.03 0.29 ± 0.08 (99.5%) 4.3 CuI nanoparticles 254 nm >5.69 ± 0.00 >5.69 ±0.00 (60 wt % in PVP) 3.0 CuI nanoparticles 241 nm >5.49 ± 0.17  >5.69±0.00 (50 wt % in PVP) 0.0 None −0.02 ± 0.10 −0.02 ± 0.05 DuPont None 2to 3 μm  0.89 ± 0.08  4.52 ± 0.00 Crystal Clear AM coating *Particlesize of CuI or the antimicrobial material (optical microscope used tocharacterize bulk powder).

These results show that functionalized CuI particles deliveredsignificantly better antimicrobial performance as compared to thecommercial antimicrobial coating, especially at the 6-hour mark. It isnotable that the use of CuI (as received) as non-functionalizedparticles in the coatings when used at about 2 μm in size did not resultin any perceived antimicrobial activity.

Example 57 Preparation of Urethane Coatings Containing Wet Ground CuIDispersion in Urethane (Emulsion) Resin

Aliphatic urethane 71/N aqueous dispersions (35% solids) sold under theTradename of ESACOTE™ obtained from Lamberti SpA, (Gallarate, Italy).This was divided in two parts. In one part CuI was added and ground to asmall particle size for a duration of 240 minutes as described inExample 42a so that the smaller CuI particles being formed werefunctionalized by the PU dispersion. These two parts were then mixed indifferent proportions to vary the amount of copper in the coatingformulation. As an example a formulation where these were mixed in aproportion of 50% each by weight was made as follows. To a beaker wasadded 3 g of an aliphatic urethane 71/N aqueous dispersion was added 3 gof the CuI comprising dispersion. This was mixed well to form ahomogeneous material. While stirring 0.12 g of the cross linking agentPZ28 (polyfunctional aziridine manufactured by PolyAziridine, LLCMedford, N.J.) was added to this mixture. The urethane formulation wasapplied to stainless steel substrates 2″×2″ by brush application andcured at room temperature for 12 hours followed by two hours at 70° C.The cured formulation was transparent with a slight brown tint. It wasdurable and hard with good chemical resistance to both water andethanol. The Cu⁺ content of the dried coating was 3.51 wt %. Thisprocedure was repeated by varying the ratio of PU71/N to CuI urethanedispersion to give coated surfaces with different concentrations of Cu⁺as listed in Table 23. These were tested against P. aeruginosa asdescribed in the above example, and the results are shown in Table 23.In this example, it should be emphasized that polyurethane 71/N aqueousdispersion is an emulsion of a hydrophobic urethane, as after it iscoated and dried, this cannot be solvated in water.

TABLE 23 Ratio PU:(CuI + Wt % Cu⁺ in Log₁₀ Reduction PU) (by weight)Dried Coating 6 hours 24 hours 10:90 6.33 >6.08 ± 0.05   >5.98 ± 0.0550:50 3.51 3.24 ± 0.05 >5.82 ± 0.05 75:25 1.76 3.71 ± 0.05 >5.76 ± 0.0590:10 0.70 3.24 ± 0.05 >5.98 ± 0.05 100:0  0 0.55 ± 0.05 −0.04 ± 0.08

The above results show that incorporation of CuI in the coatings whichwere prepared by grinding in a polymeric emulsion process resulted inpolymer-functionalized CuI particles having high antimicrobial activity.The polymeric emulsion functionalized the CuI surfaces and stabilizedthe particles as it was pulverized. PU coatings without the copper-basedadditive did not demonstrate antimicrobial properties, as demonstratedin the 100:0 result of Table 23. Further, the antimicrobial activityincreased with the increased CuI content. It is interesting to note thatall of these coatings with CuI had better performance at short times ascompared to the commercial coating in Table 22.

Example 58 Povidone-Iodine Plus Copper Iodide/PolyvinylpyrrolidoneAntimicrobial Solution

A copper iodide polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP) powder is prepared bydissolving 0.0476 g of CuI (99.999% Sigma Aldrich) in 50 ml of anhydrousacetonitrile. To this solution is added 10 g of PVP (10,000MW SigmaAldrich) and stirred to form a pale yellow solution. The acetonitrile isremoved under reduced pressure at 30° C. to form a pale green powder.This powder contains 0.158 wt % Cu⁺.

To 10 ml of a 10% solution of Povidone-iodine (CVS brand, obtained fromCVS Pharmacy, Tucson, Ariz.) is added 0.38 g of the CuI/PVP powderpreviously described to give a 60 ppm concentration of Cu⁺ in thesolution. This forms the Povidone-iodine-CuI/PVP antimicrobial solution.

Example 59 Topical Cream Comprising CuI Nanoparticles: Zone ofInhibition

To prepare this cream, functionalized CuI particles with two differentsizes were prepared in PVP.

For the first preparation, the particle size was 241 nm and was made bythe procedure described in Example 56 which used 10,000 molecular weightPVP from Sigma Aldrich. This is called 50% Powder (as this had 50% byweight of CuI in the dry powder).

For the second preparation, the particle size was predominantly 4 nm andwas prepared in the following fashion. To a reaction flask containing 80ml of anhydrous acetonitrile, (99.8% Sigma Aldrich Cat. #271004), wasadded 4.75 g of PVP (Luvitec™ K17 from BASF) and stirred to form a lightyellow solution. To this solution was added 0.25 g of CuI (99.999% SigmaAldrich Cat. #205540) and after stirring for 30 minutes this resulted ina clear pale green solution. Then the bulk of the acetonitrile wasremoved under reduced pressure at 30° C. to form a viscous paste. Thetemperature was then increased to 60° C. to completely remove thesolvent to give a pale yellow solid. Dynamic light scattering on adilute sample of the dispersion showed a mean particle size of 4 nm for85% of the particulate volume, and the others were larger. This had 5weight % of CuI in the dry powder, and was called 5% Powder.

The cream was prepared in a beaker by adding 0.06 g of Carbomer(obtained from Lubrizol Inc, Wickliffe, Ohio) and 2.0 ml of deionizedwater(18 Mohm-cm). This was mixed to give a slightly hazy non colorlessliquid. To this mixture was added 0.2 g of PVP (Sigma Aldrich, 10,000molecular weight) and the mixture stirred vigorously. The addition ofPVP caused a slight decrease in the viscosity. To this solution wasadded while stirring 1.96 g of CuI/PVP 50% Powder followed by 1.45 g ofCuI/PVP 5% Powder. The final concentration of Cu⁺ in the cream was 2.1wt %. This cream was tested against P. aeruginosa and S. aureus usingthe zone of inhibition method as described below.

Petri dishes for the test were prepared by dispensing 25 ml of sterileagar medium into sterile plates. Overnight cultures were diluted tofinal working optical density 600 nm of 0.100 and uniformly streakedover the agar using sterile swabs. Cylindrical plugs having a diameterof approximately 5.3 mm were removed from the solidified agar plates bymeans of a sterile cork borer. Approximately 75 μl of cream were addedto the wells. Triple antibiotic first aid ointment from WalgreensPharmacy (Walgreens Brand, obtained from Walgreens Pharmacy, Tucson,Ariz.) was used as a control material. This cream (control) listedBacitracin zinc 400 units, Neomycin 3.5 mg and Polymyxin B sulfate at5,000 units as active ingredients in white petrolatum. Plates asdescribed were incubated in a humidified chamber at 37° C. for 24 hoursat which time the plates were examined for bactericidal and growthinhibition effects.

Upon examination of the plates a slight bluish-green hue halo wasobserved around the wells along with a zone of inhibition for CuIcomprising creams. A three scale measure was used to determine the zoneof inhibition, “0” for no inhibition, which was indicated by completeabsence of the zone of inhibition; “1” as limited inhibition, where thezone diameter (including the well) was in the range of 6 to 8 mm; andsignificant inhibition designated as “2”, when this zone (including thewell) exceeded 8 mm. The results are shown in Table 24 below.

TABLE 24 Inhibition against Inhibition against Material P. aeruginosa S.aureus Control 0 2 Cream with CuI 2 2

The control cream is known to be effective against Gram positivemicroorganisms, and the results show the controls inhibited S. aureus,as expected. The CuI creams of the current formulation show equaleffectiveness against S. aureus. Against the Gram negative P.aeruginosa, the control creams were not expected to show efficacy, andthey did not. However, the CuI-based cream did show substantialeffectiveness, further bolstering the broad antimicrobial nature of theinvention.

It will be understood that various modifications may be made to theembodiments disclosed herein. Therefore, the above description shouldnot be construed as limiting, but merely as exemplifications ofpreferred embodiments. Those skilled in the art will envision othermodifications that come within the scope and spirit of the claimsappended hereto. All patents and references cited herein are explicitlyincorporated by reference in their entirety.

1-30. (canceled) 31: A method of inhibiting growth of or killingmicrobes comprising contacting a microbial environment with acomposition comprising: preformed particles comprising at least oneinorganic copper salt having an average particle size less than about1000 nm complexed by at least one functionalizing agent, saidfunctionalizing agent stabilizing said particles in a carrier. 32: Themethod of claim 31 wherein said carrier is a liquid. 33: The method ofclaim 31 wherein said composition is added to an article of manufacture.34: The composition of claim 32 wherein said functionalizing agent isinsoluble in said liquid carrier but stabilizes said particles in saidliquid carrier. 35: (canceled) 36: The method of claim 32 wherein saidliquid carrier is water-based. 37: The composition of claim 32 whereinsaid liquid carrier is oil-based. 38: The method of claim 32 whereinsaid particles are suspended in said liquid carrier. 39: The compositionof claim 31 wherein said carrier is a solid. 40: The composition ofclaim 39 wherein said solid carrier comprises a melt blend-plastic. 41:The method of claim 31 wherein said inorganic copper salt comprises acopper halide salt. 42: The method of claim 33 wherein the said articleof manufacture is a coating. 43: The method of claim 31 which comprisesdispersing said composition in a liquid, and then contacting a surfacewith said liquid dispersion. 44: The method of claim 43 wherein theliquid additionally contains a film-forming polymer or precursor whichforms a polymeric coating after the said liquid is deposited on asurface. 45: The method of claim 31 which comprises dispersing saidcomposition in a melt-blend, extrudable or injection moldable polymer.46: The method of claim 32 which comprises applying a coating comprisingsaid composition to a surface whereby a solvent present in the carrierevaporates leaving the remaining composition on said surface. 47: Themethod of claim 46 wherein said carrier additionally comprises one ormore film-forming polymers or precursors which form a polymeric coatingafter applying to said surface. 48: The method of claim 45 furthercomprising the step of combining said dispersion with other melt-blend,extrudable or injection moldable-capable polymers, and thenmanufacturing an article from said composition dispersed in saidmelt-blend, extrudable or injection-moldable polymer. 49: The method ofclaim 31 wherein the composition contains at least about 12 ppm ofcopper salt. 50: The method of claim 41 wherein said halide is Iodide.51: (canceled) 52: The method of claim 31 wherein said inorganic coppersalt has a solubility of less than about 100 mg/liter in water at roomtemperature. 53: The method of claim 31 wherein said inorganic coppersalt has a solubility of less than about 15 mg/liter in water at roomtemperature. 54: The method of claim 31 wherein said functionalizingagent is selected from the group consisting of amino acids, thiols,hydrophilic polymers, hydrophobic polymers, amphiphilic polymers,surfactants and ligand-specific binding agents. 55: The composition ofclaim 54 wherein said amino acid is selected from any of aspartic acid,leucine and lysine. 56: The composition of claim 54 wherein said thiolis selected from the group consisting of aminothiol, thioglycerol,thioglycine, thiolactic acid, thiomalic acid, thiooctic acid andthiosilane. 57: The composition of claim 54 wherein said hydrophilicpolymer is selected from the group consisting of polyvinylpyrrolidone,polyethyleneglycol and copolymers and blends comprising at least one ofthe monomers which form the said polymers. 58: The composition of claim54 wherein said hydrophobic polymer is selected from the groupconsisting of polyurethanes, acrylic polymers, epoxies, silicones andfluorosilicones. 59: The composition of claim 54 wherein saidamphiphilic polymer is selected from the group consisting ofPVP-block-polypropyleneoxide-block,polyethyleneoxide-block-polypropyleneoxide-block-polyethyleneoxide-block,and polyethyleneoxide-block-polypropylene oxide-block. 60: The method ofclaim 31 wherein said inorganic copper salt is selected from the groupconsisting of copper thiocyanate and copper oxide. 61: A method ofinhibiting growth of or killing microbes in an environment comprisingproviding a composition comprising preformed particles comprising atleast one inorganic copper salt selected from the group consisting ofCuI, CuBr and CuCl having an average particle size less than about 1000nm complexed by at least one functionalizing agent,; wherein saidfunctionalizing agent is present in said composition at a weight ratioof from about 100:1 to about 0.5:1.